Ancient History of Central Asia
(Kushana Empire)
(Article no
02: Notes on Central Asian History during Kushan Kingdom)
Imp.Note:
Till now many researches publoished on the history of Great Yuezhi/Gurjar tribe
but schollers are not in position to clearify all happinings in a series. In this article, we are trying to compile all
happinings as per their timings. We also would like to clarify that the
material under this article is not a copyright matter and main motive of this
article is, to attract good scholers to discuss and research on the great
Yuezhi/Gurjar Tribe.
Compiled By:
Adesh
Katariya
Kushana Empire:
The Yuezhi
under the leadership of the Kushanas came down from Central Asia and swept away
all earlier dynasties of the Northwest in a great campaign of conquest. They
established an empire which extended from Central Asia right down to the
eastern Gangetic basin. The history of the further development of this kingdom
is recorded in the chronicles of the contemporary Han dynasty of China which
were compiled in the fifth century AD.As Kushan (Kushana) Kingdom was established by the Da Yuezhi and united all five states
under single Kingdom either for surviving during that time or by ego of Kushan
leader. The record of the Weilue
would be tantamount to saying that the Da Yuezhis were both the conqueror and
the conquered –It may indicate that Kushan conquered other four States. Also it could be possible that, Kushan (Ch: 貴霜) gained prominence over the other Yuezhi tribes, and
welded them into a tight confederation under yabgu (Commander) Kujula Kadphises. The name Kushan was adopted in the West and
modified into Kushana to
designate the confederation, although the Chinese continued to call them Yuezhi.
Gradually wresting control of the area from
the Scythian tribes, the Kushans expanded south into the region traditionally
known as Gandhara, an area lying primarily
in India’s Pothowar, and Northwest
Frontier Provinces region but going in an arc to include Kabul valley and part
of Qandahar in Afghanistan, and established twin capitals near present-day Kabul and Peshawar then known as
Kapisa and Pushklavati respectively.
The Kushans adopted elements of the
Hellenistic culture of Bactria. They adapted the Greek alphabet, often
corrupted, to suit their own language, using the additional development of the
letter Þ "sh," as in "Kushan," and soon began minting
coinage on the Greek model. On their coins they used Greek language legends
combined with Pali legends (in the Kharoshthi script), until the first few
years of the reign of Kanishka. After that date, they used Kushan language
legends (in an adapted Greek script), combined with legends in Greek (Greek
script) and legends in Pali (Kharoshthi script).
Before
the arrival of the Tuharans, north Afghanistan kept frequent contacts with West
Asia and the Merranean. Though this region was once under the rule of
Achaemenid Persia, when the Yuezhi-Kushan arrived in the second century BCE,
the dominant cultural influence was probably Hellenistic. Actually, Hellenistic
influence stretched to a much larger area than Bactria-- south down to
Gandharan region in modern Pakistan and east to Samarkand in modern Uzbekistan.
The beautiful city goddess excavated from Charsada, the site of ancient
Purushapura, one of the Kushan capitals near modern Peshawa in Pakistan,
demonstrates that Hellenistic influence persisted even under the Kushan rule.
Not only the artistic style of the sculpture but also the city-wall crown of
the goddess, the symbol of the patron deity of a city, provide evidences of
Hellenistic nature of the city. Excavations at Ai-Khanoum, the site on the
southern side of the Amu Darya or the Oxus River in Greek, demonstrate a
comprehensive picture of Greek life--a theater, a gymnasium, temples, and a
palace. The palace was not only the residence of the ruler, but also the
administration center and treasuries. The very presence of a palace meant the
city was the capital of a sovereign state. According to the Chinese records of
the political structure of the region, this should be one of the many
city-states in Daxia.
he rule
in Afghanistan and later on in South Asia facilitated further transformation of
the Kushans. After the Kushan army crossed the Hindu Kush and occupied north
Indian plain, their territory included parts of both Central Asia and South
Asia, thus controlled the crucial sector of the Silk Road, and benefited
tremendously from the trade traffic. The excavation at Begram, the site of the
ancient city Kapisa, revealed an even more divers variety of wealth. Begram,
not far from modern Kabul city, was probably a summer palace of the Kushan
Empire after the court moved into India. The palace treasury with 150 years
occupation from the first century CE held artistic works from the Merranean,
South Asia and East Asia. The trading skill of Yuezhi-Kushan people since the
days of their wandering on the steppe had now been well paid.
In addition to horses, wine was a symbol of high culture under the early Kushan regime. When selling Chinese silk, Indian precious stones, Himalaya fragrances and other rarities to Roman traders, Kushans imported wine from the Merranean. Shards of amphora with residue of wine have been found at sites associated with Roman trade. Supply to the Kushan territory mostly came through Red Sea trade of the Roman Empire. The manual of navigation on the Red Sea by Periplus recorded Roman marketing wine to the port of Baryagaza, a port on the mouth of the Indus River, and Barbaricum, a port in the Gulf of Cambay. Amphora shards have been found at the Saka-Parthian level of Sirkap, the second site of Taxila, and under the level of the Red Polished Ware, and Ksatrapa coins at Elephanta, an island of shore of Bambay. The Merranean Grape wine, used to be the major export of Greek states, now in the hands of Roman traders. But it was the Greeks who brought viticulture and the taste for grape wine to all their colonies a few centuries ago created the market in India, at least in the northwest region.
While Tuharans or Yuezhi-Kushans accepted wine drinking as a high culture, the Bactrians and Indians accepted horse riding as a high culture. There are numerous bacchanalian scenes appearing on Gandharan Buddhist artworks. It is difficult to understand why that Buddhism as a religion denouncing desires for material things could tolerate, or admire, the joy of intoxication. Leaving aside the theological interpretations of the drinking scenes, the background of a prosperous viticulture and prestige associated with wine drinking may be helpful in understanding this topic of Buddhist art. That the nomadic Yuezhi who transformed into the Kushans happened to choose the routes passing Hellenistic countries to enter South Asia did enriched their cultures from that direction. .
Persian cultural influence also presented in Bactria. Though the Achaemenid rule in Daxia finished by the invasion of Alexander, Persian religious traditions survived or even flourished under the Hellenistic period. In the typical Hellenistic site of Ai Khanoum, while the official deities on coins were Greek, all three temples in the vicinity were not for Greek gods but perhaps altars for fire worship. Greek religion was not monotheist thus Hellenistic cities might have tolerated other deities in their pantheon while maintaining Greek art style. Therefore, when the Yuezhi-Kushan or other nomadic people came in, Zoroastrian cult did not disappear in Hellenistic Bactria. The Kushans were very willing to embrace cults and religious practices of the conquered peoples. Religious tolerance and diversity of the region itself also made the Kushans adopt various cults available to them.
In addition to horses, wine was a symbol of high culture under the early Kushan regime. When selling Chinese silk, Indian precious stones, Himalaya fragrances and other rarities to Roman traders, Kushans imported wine from the Merranean. Shards of amphora with residue of wine have been found at sites associated with Roman trade. Supply to the Kushan territory mostly came through Red Sea trade of the Roman Empire. The manual of navigation on the Red Sea by Periplus recorded Roman marketing wine to the port of Baryagaza, a port on the mouth of the Indus River, and Barbaricum, a port in the Gulf of Cambay. Amphora shards have been found at the Saka-Parthian level of Sirkap, the second site of Taxila, and under the level of the Red Polished Ware, and Ksatrapa coins at Elephanta, an island of shore of Bambay. The Merranean Grape wine, used to be the major export of Greek states, now in the hands of Roman traders. But it was the Greeks who brought viticulture and the taste for grape wine to all their colonies a few centuries ago created the market in India, at least in the northwest region.
While Tuharans or Yuezhi-Kushans accepted wine drinking as a high culture, the Bactrians and Indians accepted horse riding as a high culture. There are numerous bacchanalian scenes appearing on Gandharan Buddhist artworks. It is difficult to understand why that Buddhism as a religion denouncing desires for material things could tolerate, or admire, the joy of intoxication. Leaving aside the theological interpretations of the drinking scenes, the background of a prosperous viticulture and prestige associated with wine drinking may be helpful in understanding this topic of Buddhist art. That the nomadic Yuezhi who transformed into the Kushans happened to choose the routes passing Hellenistic countries to enter South Asia did enriched their cultures from that direction. .
Persian cultural influence also presented in Bactria. Though the Achaemenid rule in Daxia finished by the invasion of Alexander, Persian religious traditions survived or even flourished under the Hellenistic period. In the typical Hellenistic site of Ai Khanoum, while the official deities on coins were Greek, all three temples in the vicinity were not for Greek gods but perhaps altars for fire worship. Greek religion was not monotheist thus Hellenistic cities might have tolerated other deities in their pantheon while maintaining Greek art style. Therefore, when the Yuezhi-Kushan or other nomadic people came in, Zoroastrian cult did not disappear in Hellenistic Bactria. The Kushans were very willing to embrace cults and religious practices of the conquered peoples. Religious tolerance and diversity of the region itself also made the Kushans adopt various cults available to them.
The Kushans built one of the most intriguing political power in world
history. Contemporary to the Roman
Empire and the Han Empire, across millenniums around the Common Era, this
regime lasted more than three hundred years counting from its dominance at
Bactria around the beginning of the first century BCE to the its submission to
the Sassanian Empire in the third century CE.
At the apex of imperial expansion,
the Kushan Empire encompassed a large territory from Central Asia to
South Asia. Yet the Kushan regime was
probably among the least understood ancient empires in world history. Scholars who study various aspects of the
Kushan culture have encountered many insurmountable difficulties to set up a
historical frame, chronologically and geographically, for the empire. Either, When arriving at Bactria from the
steppe, Yuezhi people had not developed a written language to record their
history yet or they were too busy in various wars . When ruling a large agricultural empire, the
Kushans managed to hold many different peoples with different languages,
religions, and cultures under its power for several centuries, but never
established a unified official language to record its history. Though the multiple cultures under the Kushan
Empire make the study of Kushan history difficult, this very cosmopolitanism of
the regime should invite more discussions and interpretations of the political
experiment by a people from the steppe.
Early Kushans:
Heraios /
Heraus / Miaos (c.AD 1 – 30)
(First Kushan clan chief)
The earliest documented ruler, and the first
one to proclaim himself as a Kushan ruler, was Heraios. It is quit possible that Heraios could be
Grand -grandson of Yuezhi King(who killed by Modu) and Queen, who led the
Yuezhi peoples after defeat by Modu. Heraios calls himself a "tyrant" on his coins, and also exhibits skull
deformation. He had continued Greek Coins
as well as started his Coins in the same style of Greeks. Heraios was the
father of the first Kushan emperor Kujula Kadphises. He struck tetradrachms and obols in relatively
good silver (80 to 87 percent fine) to a reduced Attic weight standard of 15 to
16 gm, instead of the 16.8 gm standard the Greek kings of Bactria had used. His
coins circulated principally in Bactria with a specially concentrated group of
finds from the Vakhsh valley (of Tajikistan), to the north of the river Oxus.
He used legends in Greek script and two of the denominations that many of the
Greek kings of Bactria had employed in the 2nd century B.C.E. On the
tetradrachms there is a distinctive bust of the chieftain within a reel and
pellet border of the type that had been used to frame the heads of several of
the later Greek kings. He has thick hair trimmed below the ears and tied with a
diadem, a heavy jowl, hooked nose, a jutting chin, and a prominent moustache.
His head is elongated, the result apparently of the nomad practice of skull
deformation, in which the heads of children were bound tightly in infancy. The
reverse type shows the chief wearing tunic and trousers, riding a horse with a
large bow hanging from his saddle. Behind the rider’s head flies a small winged
nike (victory) in Greek dress, holding out a wreath. On the obols there is the
same portrait within a dotted border with a standing figure of the chieftain on
the reverse.The Greek legend that frames the reverse type varies on different
specimens. Davidovich (1983) has analyzed the mistakes and corruptions in
letter forms and spelling, and Cribb (1993) has classified them from the 58
tetradrachms and 96 obols which he studied. It now seems clear that the legend
on the tetradrachms was intended to be “turannountos Heraou” around the upper
part of the reverse, with “Sanab” or “Sanabou” across the legs of the horse and
“Koshanou” in the exergue. On the obols it was intended to be “Heraou” to the
right and “Koshanou” to the left of the standing figure. This rules out earlier
suggestions that the chief’s name was Miaos or that he was a Saka (Scythian).
"Turannountos” is
the Greek term for an absolute ruler who has gained power by force or fraud.
“Koshanou” in the legend, it has long been recognized, is the same term found
in the titulature of the later king Kanishka. It is explained by the
Chinese Annals of theLater Han 116: “The yabgu of Kuei-shuang
(Kushan) attacked and destroyed the other four yabgu and established himself as
king.” It has been argued recently that the name of the ruler should be found
in the exergue, as on coins of Eucratides I (which were themselves copied by
nomad invaders of Bactria). On this view the name of the chief who issued the
coins was really Sanab or Kushan (who is also identified with the first Kushan
king Kujula Kadphises). However, the Eucratides copies are concentrated in the
valley of the Kafirnigan (a tributary of the Oxus). They were not the direct
prototypes of the Heraus series, and other Greco-Bactrian tetradrachms put the
king’s name in the main legend, not in the exergue.
Mac Dowall and Wilson
(1970) suggested that Heraus’s name is concealed in the reference to “the most
warlike tribe of the Bactrians under a Kushan king ...” in thePeriplus,
a work now dated to the decade 60-70. This is the context for Heraus argued by
Cribb (1993), who suggests that the flying nike on the reverse of Heraus’s
tetradrachms was copied from the coinage of the Indo-Parthian king Gondophares.
The distinctive facial features of Heraus are also to be seen in the portraits
of the later Kushan king Vima Kadphises on his gold dinars. They are echoed in
several of the royal Bodhisattva figures in Gandharan sculpture and in the
series of stucco figures on the frieze decorating the Kushan palace or dynastic
temple excavated at Khalchayan on the Surkhandaria river (of Uzbekistan) in
northern Bactria, on the right bank of the Oxus. Perhaps it was an ideal
princely type among the Yuezhi/ Kushans or a strong family likeness that
persisted through several generations. Although different views of chronology
persist, there is no doubt that Heraus was an early ruler of the Kushan tribe
of the Yuezhi confederacy in northern Bactria, more than a century after the
nomads overthrew the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, shortly before the Kushan kings
invaded India.
Kujula Kadphises (ca 30 –
ca 80)
Kujula Kadphises,
reigned (30–80 CE) was a Kushan prince who united the Yuezhi confederation during the 1st century CE, and became the first Kushan
emperor. he was son of the Kushan ruler Heraios. He was the first ruler of the Kushan empire in
Afghanistan ,Later on he extended his rule to Gandhara and the Punjab
(Pakistan).
The
rise of Kujula Kadphises is described in the Chinese historical chronicle, the Hou Hanshu:
More than a hundred years later, the
prince xihou of Kushan, named Qiujiuque Kujula Kadphises, attacked and
exterminated the four other xihou. He established himself as king, and his
dynasty was called that of the Kushan Kushan King. He invaded Anxi Indo-Parthia,
and took the Gaofu Kabul region. He also defeated the whole of the kingdoms of
Puda Paktiya and Jibin Kapisha and Gandhara. Qiujiuque Kujula Kadphises was
more than eighty years old when he died.
The Kushans under the power of
Khadphises I, began to expand their empire. Khadphises I began by attacking the
Parthians, a group from what is now northern Iran, and his empire expanded from
the frontiers of Indus to Persia. Khadphises also attacked and suppressed the
Indo-Greeks, an expansion of ancient Greece, and both the Greeks, and
Parthians, to the west of Indus, were expelled (Smith: 252).
In
the process of their expansion eastward, Kujula Kadphises and his son Vima Takto seem to have displaced the Indo-Parthian kingdom, established in northwestern
India by the Parthian Gondophares since around 20CE. His son,
Yangaozhen probably Vema Tahk(tu) or, possibly, his brother Sadaṣkaṇa, became
king in his place. He defeated Tianzhu North-western India and installed
Generals to supervise and lead it. The Yuezhi then became extremely
rich. All the kingdoms call their king the Kushan Kushan king, but the Han call
them by their original name, Da Yuezhi. This invasion of Kujula Kadphises is
thought to have occurred during the reign of Abdagases and Sases, the successors of Gondophares, after 45 CE.
Genealogy
according to the Rabatak inscription
The
connection of Kujula with other Kushan rulers is described in the Rabatak
inscription,
discovered in Rabatak, Afghanistan some years ago, which was written by Kanishka. Kanishka makes the list of the
kings who ruled up to his time: Kujula Kadphises as his great-grandfather, Vima Taktu as his grandfather, and Vima
Kadphises as his
father, and himself Kanishka:
And
he Kanishka gave orders to make images of the same, (namely) of these gods who
are written herein, and he gave orders to make (them) for these kings: for King
Kujula Kadphises (his) great grandfather, and for King Vima Taktu (his) grandfather,
and for King Vima Kadphises (his) father, and for himself, King Kanishka
Coinage
Most
of Kujula's coins were Hellenic or Roman in inspiration. Some coins used the portrait,
name and title of the Indo-Greek king Hermaeus on the obverse, indicating Kujula's
wish to relate himself to the Indo-Greek king. Under Kujula there was no
standard pattern of coinage, and his coins usually borrowed from the various
coin types available in the different parts of his conquered territories.
Before Kujula the chiefs of the Yue-zhi
who were settled in Bactria usually imitated Greek coins, and Kujula did
the same. The basic pattern of his coinage thus derived from the coins of
Hermaeus, a later Indo-Greek ruler, but also copied coin designs of many rulers
and dynasties. In addition his coins also reflect many regional elements and
foreign trade links. Kujula’s coinage is an important source for understanding
the early history of the dynasty, for it reflects the gradual expansion of the
Kushans into different regions. Since the Kushans and their predecessors the Yuezhi were conversant with the Greek
language and Greek coinage, the adoption of Hermaeus cannot have been accidental:
it either expressed a filiation of Kujula Kadphises to Hermaeus by alliance
(possibly through Sapadbizes or Heraios), or simply a wish to show himself as
heir to the Indo-Greek tradition and prestige, possibly to accommodate Greek
populations. These coins bear the name of Kujula Kadphises in Kharoṣṭhī,
with representations of the Greek demi-god Heracles on the back, and titles
("Yavugasa") presenting Kujula as a "ruler" (not actual
king), and a probable Buddhist ("Dharmathidasa", follower
of the Dharma). Later coins, possibly posthumous,
did describe Kujula as "Maharajasa", or "Great King".
Greek script
The
Greek script on the coins of Kujula (and all the Kushans with him) is
barbarized. For example, ΣΤΗΡΟΣΣΥ on his Hermaeus coins is thought to be a
deformation of ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ (Sotiros), the traditional title of Hermaeus on his
coins. The Greek word for "king" is written ΒΑϹΙΛΕΩΣ, with both a lunate
sigma (Ϲ) and a
normal sigma (Σ) in the same word.The Kushans also added one character to the
Greek script: it is the letter Ϸ, corresponding to the sound "Sh", as
in "Kushan.
Silver denarius of Tiberius (14-37 CE) found in India. Indian copy of the same, 1st
century CE. Coin of Kushan king Kujula Kadphises copying a coin of Augustus.
Roman-style
coins
Some
fewer coins of Kujula Kadphises also adopted a Roman style, with effigies
closely resembling Caesar Augustus,
although all the legends were then associated with Kujula himself. Such
influences are linked to exchanges with the Roman
Empire around that
date
Kujula seated cross legged facing, Kharoshti
legend: Kuyula Kadaphasa Kushanasa.
Zeus on the reverse, Greek legend: KOZOΛA XOPANOY ZAOOY.
Coin
of Kujula Kadphises, in the style of the Roman emperor Augustus.
Legend in Kushan
language, corrupted Greek script: ΚΟΖΟΛΑ ΚΑΔΑΦΕΣ ΧΟϷΑΝΟΥ ΖΑΟΟΥ ("Kozola
Kadaphes Koshanou Zaoou"): "Kudjula Kadphises, ruler of the
Kushans". British Museum.
Kadphises I seems to have been close to
Buddhism—he calls himself on his coins ‘firm in right conduct’ (dharma
thita).
Vima
Taktu or Sadashkana (ca 80 – ca 95)
Vima Takto (Ancient
Chinese: 閻膏珍 Yangaozhen)
is not mentioned in the Rabatak inscription (Sadashkana is instead. See also
the reference to Sims-William’s article below). He was the predecessor of Vima
Kadphises, and Kanishka I. He expanded the Kushan Empire into the northwest of
the South Asia. The Hou Hanshu says:
"His son, Yangaozhen probably Vema Tahk(tu) or, possibly, his
brother Sadaṣkaṇa, became king in his place. He defeated Tianzhu North-western
India and installed Generals to supervise and lead it. The Yuezhi then became
extremely rich. All the kingdoms call their king the Kushan Kushan king, but
the Han call them by their original name, Da Yuezhi."
Vima Takto seems to have been a devotee of the Hindu
god Shiva, because some of his coins clearly show an image of Shiva.
Vima
Kadphises, Wema Kadphises/ Kadphises II (ca 95 – ca 127)
Kadphises II is a great conqueror and a great Buddhist. Khadphises II began his reign by
continuing to do his father’s work, expanding the Empire. He first conquered
northern India (Christian: 213). Which was extremely important for the Kushan
dynasty, as it gave the Kushans control of an important branch of the Silk
roads that led along the Indus valley and gave the Kushans the port of
Barygaza, where ships could sail to Egypt, bypassing Parthia (Christian: 213).
The Kushan began trading with the
Romans using this route around 100 CE (Christian: 213). The Kushans traded
precious items such silks, spices, gems and dyestuffs in return for Roman gold
coins. Roman coins were used along this route and Khadphises imitated Roman
coinage by making his own coins with his own depiction on them (Christian:
213).
He expands the borders of his kingdom to the bordering
provinces of China and Persia, and
later ventures into India, where
he establishes his borders as far as Punjab and parts of modern Uttar Pradesh,
and is the first to introduce gold coinage there. However, he apparently dies
without an heir, and the kingdom is thrown into confusion as his kshatrapas (governors) fight
amongst themselves. Kanishka, the kshatrapa of the kingdom's eastern province,
wins the struggle and declares himself the successor.
Vima
Kadphises added to the Kushan territory by his conquests in Afghanistan and
north-west Pakistan. He changed
the standard of the coins which had so far been of the same weight as the
Indo-Greek ones by following Roman precedent. The gold of these coins seems to
have been procured by melting down Roman coins (aurei) which flooded
into the Kushana empire after the discovery of the monsoon passage across the
Arabian sea in the first century AD. He
issued an extensive series of coins and inscriptions. He was the first to
introduce gold coinage in India, in addition to the existing copper and silver
coinage. His coins are of such high quality
that some historians believe that they must have been made by Roman mint
masters in the service of the Kushana kings.
Kanishka
I (ca 127 – ca 140)
The rule of Kanishka, fifth Kushan king, who flourished
for about 13 years from c. 127.
The Kushan dynasty was at the peak
of its power during the ruling of Kaniska (Christian:213). Kaniska, like his
predecessors, continued to expand the empire. His expansion continued into of
regions that include modern Tajikistan, parts of Turkmenistan, Kyrgystan,
Afghanistan, Pakistan, and north and east parts of India. Kaniska also moved
the capital of the empire from Bactra to Purushapura (Christian: 213). The new
capital was a guarded city, situated along the main road from the Afghan to the
Indian plains (Smith: 261). Later on Kaniska moved the capital city again, to
Mathura on the river Yamuna. Upon his accession, Kanishka ruled a huge
territory (virtually all of northern India), south to Ujjain and Kundina and
east beyond Pataliputra, according to the Rabatak inscription:
"In the year one, it has been proclaimed unto India, unto the whole
realm of the governing class, including Koonadeano (Kaundiny, Kundina) and the
city of Ozeno (Ozene, Ujjain) and the city of Zageda (Saketa) and the city of
Kozambo (Kausambi) and the city of Palabotro (Pataliputra) and so long unto
(i.e. as far as) the city of Ziri-tambo (Sri-Champa)."
—Rabatak inscription, Lines 4–6
As
we know that his territory was administered from two capitals: Purushapura (now
Peshawar in northern Pakistan) and Mathura, in northern India. in Purushapura he built an
enormous stupa, nearly 700 feet high and 300 feet in diameter, for Buddhist
pilgrims and travelers crossing the empire He is
also cred (along with Raja
Dab) for building the massive, ancient Fort at Bathinda (Qila Mubarak), in
the modern city of Bathinda,
Indian Punjab. The
Kanishka also had a summer capital in Bagram (then known as Kapisa), where the "Begram
Treasure", comprising works of art from Greece to China, has been found.
According to the Rabatak inscription, Kanishka was the son of Vima Kadphises,
the grandson of Sadashkana, and the great-grandson of Kujula Kadphises.
The first references to Kanishka
are found in the eastern parts of the Kushana empire in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab,
which was probably under the control of rather autonomous viceroys. In two
inscriptions of the second and third year of his reign which have been found at
Kausambi and Sarnath in the east, he merely calls himself Maharaja Kanishka. Yet
in an inscription of the seventh year of his reign at Mathura he gives his
title as Maharaja Rajatiraja Devaputra Shahi, a designation which is repeated
in an inscription of the eleventh year of his reign in the central Indus
valley. All this would indicate that Kanishka first came to power in the east
and, after he had seized the centre of the empire which was probably at
Mathura, he adopted the full titles of his predecessors.
The vast extension of Kanishka’s
empire cannot be adequately outlined. It probably reached from the Oxus in the
west to Varanasi in the east and from Kashmir in the north via Malwa right down
to the coast of Gujarat in the south. Not much is known about his hold on
Central Asia, but there is a reference to the defeat of a Kushana army by the
Chinese general, Pan- Chao, at Khotan in the year AD 90. A special aim of both
Kadphises II and Kanishka seems to have been to control the trade routes
connecting India with Rome, i.e. those land and sea routes which would enable
this trade to bypass the Parthians’ routes. This trade must have been very
profitable to the Kushanas. Pliny (VI, 10) laments in those days: ‘There is no
year in which India does not attract at least 50 million sesterces Roman
coins.’
Yet though fifty-seven out of the
sixty-eight finds of Roman coins in the whole of Southern Asia were found in
south India, none at all were found in the area of the Kushana empire. This
must be due to the fact that the Kushanas as a matter of policy melted down and
reissued them. After the debasement of Roman silver coins in AD 63 in the reign
of Nero, gold became the most important medium of exchange for the Roman trade
with India, and this must have greatly contributed to the rise of the Kushanas
to prosperity and power.
Kanishka’s fame is not only based
on his military and political success but also on his spiritual merit. The
Buddhists rank him together with Ashoka, Menander and Harsha as one of the
great Buddhist rulers of India. The great stupa at Peshawar is rated as his
greatest contribution to Buddhist monumental architecture. Several Chinese
pilgrims have left us descriptions of this stupa and have stated that it was
about 600 to 700 feet high. When archaeologists excavated the foundations of
this stupa at the beginning of the twentieth century they found that it was 286
feet in diameter. Therefore it must have
been one of the great miracles of the ancient world.
For the development of Indian art
it was of great importance that Kanishka not only favoured the Gandhara school
of Buddhist art which had grown out of Greek influences but also provided his
patronage to the Mathura school of art which set the style of Indian art. This
school produced the famous statue of Kanishka of which, unfortunately, only the
headless trunk has survived. His dress here shows the typical Central Asian
style.
He was a great conqueror and an
even greater administrator, a man who ruled over a vast region of North India
as well as parts of Central Asia. His generosity of spirit, and the graceful
personality of one of his opponents, can best be illustrated in the following
account of his battle for the kingdom of Pataliputra. He rode out of the
northwest across central India, conquering everything in his path, in the
pursuit of a new Indian unity. When he came to the gates of the beautiful
capital city, the king resisted furiously, but the citadel fell. Kanishka
demanded nine hundred million gold pieces as indemnity for the war. The king
did not possess even a small fraction of the sum, but he appeared before the emperor
like a defeated monarch, much in the manner that King Porus confronted
Alexander in Eastern Punjab, preparing to come to dignified terms. He offered
Kanishka three symbolic treasures, each one worth a third of the sum demanded.
The first was a fowl which symbolized compassion, and the second was a begging
bowl which had belonged to the Buddha. The third offering was Ashvaghosha, the
great playwright, poet and master of Buddhist philosophy. Kanishka
magnanimously accepted the three offerings as full payment, and took the sage
back with him to Purushapura/Peshawar, where he was appointed the court's
spiritual counsellor. Kanishka then became a devout student of Ashvaghosha's
teachings.
Kanishka's era
Kanishka's era was used as a calendar reference by the Kushans and later by the Guptas in
Mathura for about three centuries. Kanishka's era is now by many believed to
have begun in 78 AD , started on
the occasion of Rajyarohan of Kaniskha. . two
possible scenarios are proposed for the Kanskha’s era “Scenario A,” with Year 1
of the era of Kanishka the Great beginning in 78 CE (Fussmann 1974, Senior
2001, Senior 2005/2006), and “Scenario B,” with Year 1 of the Kanishka era
beginning in 127/8 CE (Falk 2001). There is a high likelihood that the Kanishka
era is the same as the Shaka era, which began April 1, 78 CE (Falk 2012), also
an era still used in present-day India as “National Era”.
Rabatak inscription
The Rabatak
inscription is an inscription written on a rock in the Bactrian language and
the Greek script, which was found in 1993 at the site of Rabatak, near Surkh Kotal in
Afghanistan. The inscription relates to the rule of the Kushan emperor Kanishka, and
gives remarkable clues on the genealogy of the Kushan dynasty.
Discovery of Rabatak inscription
The
Rabatak inscription was found near the top of an artificial hill (actually a
Kushan site) along the main Kabul-Mazar highway, to the southeast of the
Rabatak pass which is currently the border between Baghlan and Samangan
provinces. It was found by Afghan mujahideen digging a trench at the top of the
site, along with several other stone sculptural elements such as the paws of a
giant stone lion, which have disappeared since. An English relief worker of the
Halo Trust demining organization working in this province reported the
discovery and photographed the inscription. This photograph was sent to the
British Museum, where its significance as an official document of the Kushan
kings, naming four of these kings, was recognised by Joe Cribb. He determined it was a probably an
inscription similar to the famous one found at Surkh Kotal by the Delegation Archeologique Francaise
en Afghanistan in the 1950s. He shared the photograph with one of the few
people able to read the Bactrian language, Professor Nicholas
Sims-Williams from the
School of Oriental and African Studies. More photographs arrived from the
charity workers of the Halo Trust and a first translation was made and
published by Cribb and Sims-Williams in 1996.
(Translation
by Nicholas Sims-Williams) 1 . . . of the great salvation, Kanishka the Kushan,
the righteous, the just, the autocrat, the god 2
- worthy of worship, who has obtained the
kingship from Nana and from all the gods, who has
- inaugurated the year one 3 as the gods pleased.
And he *issued a Greek *edict (and) then he put it into Aryan.
4
In the year one it has been proclaimed unto India, unto the *whole of the realm
of the *kshatriyas, that (as for) 5 them - both the (city of) . . . and the
(city of) Saketa, and the (city of) Kausambi, and the (city of) Pataliputra, as
far as the (city of) Sri-Campa 6 - whatever rulers and other *important persons
(they might have) he had submitted to (his) will, and he had submitted all 7
India to (his) will. Then King Kanishka gave orders to Shafar the karalrang 8
*at this . . . to make the sanctuary which is called B . . . ab, in the *plain
of Ka . . ., for these 9 gods, (of) whom the . . . *glorious Umma leads the
*service here, (namely:) the *lady Nana and the 10 lady Umma, Aurmuzd, the
gracious one, Sroshard, Narasa, (and) Mihr. interlinear text: . . . and he is
called Maaseno, and he is called Bizago And he likewise 11 gave orders to make
images of these gods who are written above, and 12 he gave orders to make
(them) for these kings: for King Kujula Kadphises (his) great 13 grandfather,
and for King Vima Taktu, (his) grandfather, and for King Vima Kadphises 14
(his) father, and *also for himself, King Kanishka. Then, as the king of kings,
the devaputra 15 . . . had given orders to do, Shafar the karalrang made this
sanctuary. 16 Then . . . the karalrang, and Shafar the karalrang, and Nukunzuk
led the worship 17 according to the (king's) command. (As for) *these gods who
are written here - may they keep the 18 king of kings, Kanishka the Kushan, for
ever healthy, *secure, (and) victorious. 19 And when the devaputra, the *ruler
of all India from the year one to the year *one *thousand, 20 had *founded the
sanctuary in the year one, then *also to the . . . year. . . 21 according to
the king's command . . . (and) it was given also to the . . ., (and) it was
given also to the . . ., (and) also to 22 . . . the king gave an *endowment to
the gods, and . . . (1996)
Because
of the civil war in Afghanistan years passed before further examination could
be accomplished. In April 2000 the English historian Dr. Jonathan Lee, a specialist on Afghan history,
travelled with Robert Kluijver, the director of the Society for the
Preservation of Afghanistan's Cultural Heritage, from Mazar-i Sharif to Pul-i
Khumri, the provincial capital of Baghlan, to locate the stone. It was
eventually found in a store at the Department of Mines and Industry. Dr. Lee
took photographs which allowed Prof. Sims-Williams to publish a more accurate
translation, which was followed by another translation once Professor
Sims-Williams had examined the stone in person (2008).
In
July 2000 Robert Kluijver travelled with a delegation of the Kabul Museum to
Pul-i Khumri to retrieve the stone inscription (weighing between 500 and 600
kilograms). It was brought by car to Mazar-i Sharif and flown from there to
Kabul. At the time the Taliban had a favorable policy toward the preservation
of Afghan cultural heritage, including pre-Islamic heritage. The inscription,
whose historical value had meanwhile been determined by Prof. Sims-Williams,
became the centrepiece of the exhibition of the (few) remaining artifacts in
the Kabul Museum, leading to a short-lived inauguration of the museum on 17
August 2000. Senior Taliban objected to the display of pre-Islamic heritage,
which led to the closing of the museum (and the transfer of the Rabatak
inscription to safety), a reversal of the cultural heritage policy and
eventually the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamyan and other pre-Islamic statuary (from
February 2001 onwards).
Today
the Rabatak inscription is again on display in the reopened Afghan
National Museum or
Kabul Museum.
The
Rabatak site, again visited by Robert Kluijver in March 2002, has been looted
and destroyed (the looting was performed with bulldozers), reportedly by the
local commander at Rabatak.
Main findings of Rabatak inscription
Territories
of the Kushans under Kaniska according to the Rabatak inscription.
Religion:
The first lines of the
inscription describe Kanishka as:
"the great salvation, the righteous,
just autocrat, worthy of divine worship, who has obtained the kingship from Nana and from all the gods, who has inaugurated
the year one as the gods pleased" (Trans. Professor Sims-Williams)
The
"Arya language"
Follows a statement regarding
the writing of the inscription itself, indicating that the language used by
Kanishka in his inscription was self-described as the "Aryan language".
"It was he who laid out (i.e.
discontinued the use of) the Ionian ("ιωνα", Yona,
Greek) speech and then placed the Arya ("αρια", Aryan)
speech."
Regnal
eras
Also, Kanishka announces the
beginning of a new era starting with the year 1 of his reign, abandoning the
therefore "Great Arya Era" which had been in use, possibly meaning
the Azes era of 58 BCE.
Territorial
extent
Lines 4 to 7 describe the
cities which were under the rule of Kanishka, among which four names are
identifiable: Saketa, Kausambi, Pataliputra, and Champa (although the text is not clear
whether Champa was a possession of Kanishka or just beyond it). The Rabatak
inscription is significant in suggesting the actual extent of Kushan rule under
Kanishka, which would go significantly beyond traditionally held boundaries:1
Succession
Finally, Kanishka makes the
list of the kings who ruled up to his time: Kujula Kadphises as his great-grandfather, Vima Taktu as his grandfather, Vima Kadphises as his father, and himself Kanishka:
"for King Kujula Kadphises (his) great
grandfather, and for King Vima Taktu (his) grandfather, and for King Vima
Kadphises (his) father, and *also for himself, King Kanishka" (Cribb and
Sims-Williams 1995/6: 80)
Another translation by Prof.
B.N. Mukherjee has been given much currency, but it lacks the accuracy and
authority of Sims-Williams' translation.
Kanishka, however, was more than a soldier
and conventional emperor. Although personally ‘cruel and temperamental’, he
provided the framework of a firm and fair rule of law based on Buddhist
precepts. He was also a great compromiser and synthesiser of different ideas.
Full text of Rabatak inscription
1-3
"The year one of Kanishka, the great
deliverer, the righteous, the just, the autocrat, the god, worthy of worship,
who has obtained the kingship from Nana and from all the gods, who has laid down
(i.e. established) the year one as the gods pleased."
3-4
"And it was he who laid out (i.e.
discontinued the use of) the Ionian speech and then placed the Arya (or Aryan)
speech (i.e. replaced the use of Greek by the Aryan or Bactrian
language)."
4-6
"In the year one, it has been proclaimed
unto India, unto the whole realm of the governing class including Koonadeano
(Kaundinya< Kundina) and the city of Ozeno (Ozene, Ujjain)
and the city of Zageda (Saketa) and the city of Kozambo (Kausambi)
and the city of Palabotro (Pataliputra)
and so long unto (i.e. as far as) the city of Ziri-tambo (Sri-Champa)."
6-7
"Whichever rulers and the great
householders there might have been, they submitted to the will of the king and
all India submitted to the will of the king."
7-9
"The king Kanishka commanded Shapara
(Shaphar), the master of the city, to make the Nana Sanctuary, which is called (i.e. known for
having the availability of) external water (or water on the exterior or surface
of the ground), in the plain of Kaeypa, for these deities - of whom are Ziri
(Sri) Pharo (Farrah) and Omma."
9-9A
"To lead are the Lady Nana and the Lady
Omma, Ahura Mazda, Mazdooana, Srosharda, who is called ... and Komaro
(Kumara)and called Maaseno (Mahasena) and called Bizago (Visakha), Narasao and
Miro (Mihara)."
10-11
"And he gave same (or likewise) order to
make images of these deities who have been written above."
11-14
"And he ordered to make images and
likenesses of these kings: for king Kujula
Kadphises, for the great grandfather, and for this
grandfather Saddashkana (Sadashkana),
the Soma
sacrificer, and for king V'ima
Kadphises, for the father, and for himself (?), king Kanishka."
14-15
"Then, as the king of kings, the son of
god, had commanded to do, Shaphara, the master of the city, made this
sanctuary."
16-17
"Then, the master of the city, Shapara,
and Nokonzoka led worship according to the royal command."
17-20
"These gods who are written here, then
may ensure for the king of kings, Kanishka, the Kushana, for remaining for
eternal time healthy., secure and victorious... and further ensure for the son
of god also having authority over the whole of India from the year one to the
year thousand and thousand."
20
"Until the sanctuary was founded in the
year one, to (i.e. till) then the Great Arya year had been the fashion."
21
"...According to the royal command,
Abimo, who is dear to the emperor, gave capital to Pophisho."
22
"...The great king gave (i.e. offered
worship) to the deities."
23
"..."
Note: Nicholas
Sims-Williams gives
"Vima Taktu" as the grandfather of Kanishka in lines 11-14. Further,
he never sees "Saddashkana" or anything about "Soma"
anywhere in this inscription.
As Kaniska aged he became a devote
Buddhist and during his reign, Kaniska erected an enormous relic (Smith: 261).
The relic was believe to be carved out of wood and reached approximately 400ft
high and was surrounded by an iron pinnacle (Smith: 261). This relic was burned
down three times and was repaired after each time and stood until about the 8
century (Smith: 262). Kaniska also built a great monastery next to this relic. The monastery served as a flourishing
place for Buddhist education (Smith: 262).
Death of Kanishka
Towards the end of his reign,Kanishkas authority over the central asia was challenged by the sweeping victory of Pan-Chao,the general of chinese emperor,Ho-Ti. kanishka sent a massive army of 70,000 cavalry against Pan-Chao,which suffered terrible loss while passing through the hostile mountains.So kanishka lost his central asia kingdom as tribute to emperor. Romila Thapar, one of the famous interpreters of ancient history,opined that chinese army was so formidable and mighty, that kaishka perished while fighting with such powerful opposition. However this is a subject of great debate whether kanishka died while fighting.
Vāsishka
(ca. 140 – ca. 160)
Vāsishka was a Kushan emperor who seems to
have a 20 year reign following Kanishka. His rule is recorded as far south as
Sanchi (near Vidisa), where several inscriptions in his
name have been found, dated to the year 22 (The Sanchi inscription of
"Vaksushana" – i. e. Vasishka Kushana) and year 28 (The Sanchi
inscription of Vasaska – i. e. Vasishka) of the Kanishka era.
Huvishka
(ca. 160 – ca. 190)
Huvishka (Kushan: Οοηϸκι, "Ooishki")
was a Kushan emperor from about 20 years after the death of Kanishka (assumed
on the best evidence available to be in 140 AD) until the succession of Vasudeva I about thirty years later. His rule
was a period of retrenchment and consolidation for the Empire. In particular he
devoted time and effort early in his reign to the exertion of greater control
over the city of Mathura.
Vasudeva
I (ca. 190 – ca. 230)
Vasudeva
I (Kushan: Βαζοδηο "Bazodeo", Chinese: 波調 "Bodiao") was the last of the "Great Kushans."
Named inscriptions dating from year 64 to 98 of Kanishka’s era suggest his
reign extended from at least 191 to 225 CE. He was the last great Kushan
emperor, and the end of his rule coincides with the invasion of the Sassanids as far as northwestern India, and the
establishment of the Indo-Sassanids or Kushanshahs from around 240 CE.
Kanishka III (c.
250 – 275) : Kanishka III was a Kushan emperor who reigned for a short
period .. He is believed to have succeeded Vasishka and was succeeded by Vasudeva II.Kanishka III is known from only one inscription, known as the Ara
inscription for the place where it was found, near the town of Attock in what
is now Pakistani Punjab. The inscription is on a piece of stone and records, in
Kharoshthi script, the digging of a well in the year 41, during the reign of
Maharaja Rajatiraja Devaputra Kaisara Kanishka, son of Vajheshka. he
qualifies himself as a Kaisara ("Caesar"), suggesting some
awareness of the Roman Empire, and names himself as the son of Vashishka. This Vajheshka is taken to be the
same as Vasishka, who we know was ruling just prior to this time.
No coins
have as yet been definitively attributed to Kanishka III.
Vasudeva II (c. 275 – 310)
- Vasudeva III reported son of Vasudeva III,a King, uncertain.
- Vasudeva IV reported possible child of Vasudeva III,ruling in
Kandahar, uncertain.
- Vasudeva of Kabul reported possible child of Vasudeva IV,ruling in
Kabul, uncertain.
Chhu
(c. 310 – 325)
Shaka I (c. 325 –
345) : There is a group
of Kushan gold coins that all carry the Brahmi legend Shaka in the right
field, in the same place where Vasudeva II's coins read Vasu, so it is
natural to suppose that perhaps Shaka was the name of the king who issued these
coins. A further support for this idea is that there is a mention of one
"Devaputra Shahi Shahanshahi Shaka Murunda" in Samudragupta's famous Allahabad inscription, as
one of the rulers who paid him homage. In this context, Shaka could be a title,
it could refer to a tribe, or it could be a personal name. In any case, it
seems to be related to the Shaka coins. Unfortunately, we don't know the date
of the Allahabad inscription, so the best guess on dating Shaka is c. mid-4th
century.
Robert Göbl did not think Shaka was the name of a ruler; rather, he thought
the coins were tribal issues, but Michael Mitchiner and many other authors do think Shaka was a
personal name. Kipunada (c. 345 – 375)
Territorial expansion
Archaeological
evidence of a Kushan rule of long duration in an area stretching from Surkh
Kotal, Begram, the summer capital of the Kushans, Peshawar the capital under
Kanishka I, Taxila and Mathura, the winter capital of
the Kushans has been discovered. Other areas of rule may include Khwarezm
(Russian archaeological findings) Kausambi (excavations of the Allahabad
University), Sanchi and Sarnath (inscriptions with names and dates of
Kushan kings), Malwa and Maharashtra, Orissa (imitation of Kushan coins, and
large Kushan hoards).7
The
recently discovered Rabatak inscription tends to confirm large Kushan dominions
in the heartland of India. The lines 4 to 7 of the inscription8 describe six identifiable cities under
the rule of Kanishka: Ujjain, Kundina, Saketa, Kausambi,
Pataliputra, and Champa (although the obscure text leaves in doubt whether
Champa had been a possession of Kanishka or just beyond it).9 Northward, in the second century
C.E., the Kushans under Kanishka made various forays into the Tarim Basin,
seemingly the original ground of their ancestors the Yuezhi, where they had
contacts with the Chinese. Both archaeological findings and literary evidence
suggest Kushan rule, in Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan.10 As late as the third century C.E.,
decorated coins of Huvishka had been dedicated at Bodh
Gaya together with
other gold offerings under the
"Enlightenment Throne" of the Buddha, suggesting direct Kushan influence
in the area during that period.
Contacts with Rome
Roman trade with India
started around 1 CE, during the reign of Augustus and following his conquest of Egypt, which had been India's biggest trade
partner in the West.The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing, and according to Strabo , by the time of Augustus, up to 120 ships set sail every year from Myos Hormos on the Red Sea to India. So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the Kushans for their own coinage, that Pliny the Elder (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India:
"India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sesterces from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and women cost us. For what percentage of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead?"
—Pliny, Historia
Naturae 12.41.84
A Greco-Roman gladiator on a glass vessel,
Begram, 2nd century.
Several
Roman sources describe the visit of ambassadors from the Kings of Bactria and
India during the second century, probably referring to the Kushans. Historia
Augusta, speaking of Emperor
Hadrian (117–138)
tells:
"Reges
Bactrianorum legatos ad eum, amicitiae petendae causa, supplices miserunt"
"The kings of the Bactrians sent
supplicant ambassadors to him, to seek his friendship."
A coin of the Roman Emperor Trajan, found together with coins of Kanishka, at the Ahin Posh Buddhist
Monastery, Afghanistan.
Also
in 138, according to Aurelius Victor (Epitome‚
XV, 4), and Appian (Praef., 7),
Antoninus Pius, successor to Hadrian, received some Indian, Bactrian
(Kushan) and Hyrcanian ambassadors.
The
Chinese Historical Chronicle of the Hou Hanshu also describes the exchange of
goods between northwestern India and the Roman
Empire at that time: "To
the west (Tiazhu, northwestern India) communicates with Da Qin (the Roman
Empire). Precious things from Da Qin can be found there, as well as fine cotton
cloths, excellent wool carpets, perfumes of all sorts, sugar loaves, pepper,
ginger, and black salt." The summer capital of the Kushan in Begram has
yielded a considerable amount of goods imported from the Roman Empire, in
particular various types of glassware.
Contacts with China
The Kushan Buddhist monk Lokaksema, first
known translator of Buddhist Mahayana scriptures into Chinese, ca. 170.
During
the first and second century, the Kushan Empire expanded militarily to the
north and occupied parts of the Tarim Basin, their original grounds, putting
them at the center of the profitable Central Asian commerce with the Roman
Empire. They
collaborated militarily with the Chinese against nomadic incursion,
particularly with the Chinese general Ban Chao against the Sogdians in 84 C.E.,
who supported a revolt by the king of Kashgar. Around 85 C.E., they also
assisted the Chinese general in an attack on Turfan, east of the Tarim Basin.
In
recognition for their support to the Chinese, the Kushans requested, but were
denied, a Han princess, even after they had sent
presents to the Chinese court. In retaliation, they marched on Ban Chao in 86
with a force of 70,000, but, exhausted by the expion, fell in defeat to smaller
Chinese force. The Yuezhi retreated and paid tribute to the Chinese Empire
during the reign of the Chinese emperor Han He (89–106).
A bronze coin of Kanishka found in Khotan,
Tarim Basin.
Around
116, the Kushans under Kanishka established a kingdom centered on Kashgar, also
taking control of Khotan and Yarkand, Chinese dependencies in the Tarim Basin,
modern Xinjiang. They introduced the Brahmi script,
the Indian Prakrit language for administration, and expanded the influence of
Greco-Buddhist art which developed into Serindian art. According to records,
the Kushans again sent presents to the Chinese court in 158–159 during the
reign of the Chinese emperor Han Huan.
Following
those interactions, cultural exchanges increased, and Kushan Buddhist
missionaries, such as Lokaksema, became active in the Chinese capital cities of
Loyang and sometimes Nanjing, where they particularly distinguished themselves
by their translation work. They were the first recorded promoters of Hinayana
and Mahayana scriptures in China, greatly contributing to the
Silk Road transmission of Buddhism.
Social Structure during Kushana:
Kushana kingdom was being acculturated into
the caste hierarchy. There is also evidence that the principle of caste
endogamy was not as rigidly applied as in Kushan period. Both anuloma
and
pratiloma
marriage
conventions were approved and socially recognised, despite the various
strictures in the Dharmashastras. There was also a certain weakening of the links between a caste
and its vocation, as instances of the brahmans and the kshatriyas following the occupations of lower classes and of vaishyas
and
the shudras adopting the occupations of superior classes have been recorded.
Kushan art
The
art and culture of Gandhara
constitute the best known
expressions of Kushan influences to Westerners. Several direct depictions of
Kushans from Gandhara have been discovered, represented with a tunic, belt and
trousers and play the role of devotees to the Buddha, as well as the Bodhisattva and future Buddha Maitreya. In the iconography, they have never
been associated with the Hellenistic "Standing Buddha" statues (See
image) of an earlier historical period. The style of these friezes
incorporating Kushan devotees, already strongly Indianized, are quite remote
from earlier Hellenistic depictions of the Buddha.Indian
art flowered during the Kushana era, with sculpture leading all other arts. The
sculptures of the Buddha were most common (see Figure ).
Buddhas in
different art styles (Pat Baker: line drawings from photos in Rawson, op. cit.,
pp. 100–01).
Two major schools produced works of
great excellence and beauty.The Gandhara school of art was the more
cosmopolitan of the two.The sculptures of this school consist principally of
the Buddha and the Boddhisatva figures that show strong Greek and Roman
artistic influences on Indian themes. Some of the finest examples of Gandhara
art are to be found in the British Museum, Peshawar Museum, Berlin Museum
and Indian Museum at Calcutta. The second of the two schools was the Mathura
school of art.81 During the first three centuries of the Christian era Mathura,
50 miles southeast of Delhi on the Yamuna river, was a great hub of cultural
activity. In contrast to the Gandhara school, a more authentically
Indian artistic influence is stamped all over the art of Mathura. A whole
variety of Buddha statues, in different poses and postures, all carved in the
red spotted sandstone, are the distinguishing feature of this school. The
portrait sculpture of rulers is also a hallmark of this style, the most famous
of which is the statue of Kanishka himself. Power and authority radiate from
this statue, even though its head and arms are missing(see Figure )
Torso of
King Kanishka (Pat Baker: line drawing from Rawson, op. cit., p. 143).
At the present day,
two propositions command wide acceptance. First that Gandhara art flourished
under the Kushan Empire, a statement which does not immediately define its
date. Secondly, that the presence of the draped Buddha image is characteristic
of the developed Gandhara School. This image is understood to have been absent
in ancient Buddhist art, and was still wanting in the city of Sirkap at Taxila
during the first half of the first century A.D. It is assumed that the numerous
Buddhist sculptures of the monasteries around Taxila, and near the Dharmarajika
Stupa, are all later than the Kushan capture of the city about 60 A.D. and
represent as later phase.
However, at Taxila
soon after 20 A.D. and on at least one closely contemporary site, that of
Butkara in Swat, early Buddhist sculptures are known which foreshadow the
Gandhara School, though still lacking the canonical Buddha figure . The late
J.F. van Lohuizen-De Leeuw in an important article showed that a few sculptures
of the ancient “aniconic” type were actually made in Gandhara (389). She
provide evidence too that primitive Buddha images of a heavy appearance were
produced in the Mathura region before the rise of the Gandhara School, and that
specimens of this type were even brought to Gandhara. Priority in these
respects must be conceded to Mathura. At the same time, these early images were
not found satisfying as the symbol of an expanding world religion. It is with
the developed Gandhara style incorporating the draped Buddha image that the
present paper is concerned.
First of all
something must be said of the link between the art of Gandhara and the
domination of the Kushans. That Central Asian people were by the late first
century B.C. in control of the regions between the Indus and the Syr Darya
(Jaxartes) Rivers. After about 60 A.D., the Kushans additionally occupied
Taxila, and penetrated as farbeyond as Bahawalpur (a district of South Punjab,
Pakistan) the Jumna and the Ganges. Two categories of evidence reinforce the
link between the Kushans and what one may call the “classic” Buddha image.
First, the existence of both standing and seated Buddha figures among the many
religious types on coins of the Kushan emperor Kanishka, which certainly imply
that by his day such images of the Buddha were widely known (Gribb: 231-244).
The chronology would be clearer if the precise date of Kanishka could be
established, but for the time being that is debated. I am prepared to accept
what is almost the traditional solution: to place the first year of the Era of
Kanishka in or about 128 A.D. Many other theories are however propounded, and
have to be considered.
Dharmarajika
Stupa.
The second type of
evidence linking the developed art of
Gandhara with the Kushans comes from the sculptures themselves. The
Characteristic appearance of the Kushan chiefs and notables is well known, both
from coin-types and from the royal statues of Khalchayan, Mathura,and Surkh
Kotal. The main items of costume were the long tunic or shirt, worn over baggy
trousers, and soft leather boots. In cold weather a substantial cloak, secured
by a massive clasp, was worn over all. A broad leather belt encircled the
waist, secured by a metal clasp of ornate “barbaric” style. This belt was
necessary to carry the heavy, cross-hilted sword worn on the left side. Typical
also of the Kushan fashion was the long, drooping moustache, and in many cases
the high cheekbones which give a hint of the East Asiatic type. Recognizably
similar figures are seen among the votaries represented on Gandhara sculptures.
The geographical
limits of the artistic province of Gandhara, to east and west respectively, are
conveniently fixed by the sites of Taxila and Nagarahara, the last great city
represented archaeologically by the site of Hadda. At Taxila the principal
site, that of sirkap, lacks the Gandhara Buddha. At such well-preserved monasteries
as Mohra Moradu and Jaulian (Fig. 3),
religious retreats, we may suppose, occupied after the fall of the city,
Buddhist sculpture survives in profusion, though the preferred material is
stucco. These sculptures are most probable later than the fall of Sirkap 60
A.D. (Fig. 4) and their excavator, Sir John Marshall, placed them considerable
later. In fact he contended, for reasons never very systematically argued, that
they were as late as the fifth century A.D., representing a completely distinct
revival of artistic output which he termed the “Indo-Afghan School.”1 The
reason for this designation was a very material one. For just as Taxila was
characterized by the output of sculpture in stucco, so was the site of Hadda in
Afghanistan. If Taxilan work belonged, as Marshall maintained, to the fifth
century A.D., then so must some or all of that at Hadda. Then arose the need to
assume a distinctive “Indo-Afghan” school linking the two.
Site of
Mohra Moradu.
Site of
Jaulian.
Site of
Sirkap.
The stupa of Kanishka
the Great
Stone relief from Butkara
III, Swat valley, Gandhāra (second century CE), possibly showing the Kanishka
stupa with four towers and lion capitals (Source: Gandhara—Das buddhistische
Erbe Pakistans, Philips von Zabern, Mainz, Germany, 2008, Kat.Nr. 144, p. 200.
Reproduction with permission of Kunst- und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik
Deutschland GmbH, Bonn, Germany; photo: Peter Oszvald).
Chinese pilgrims traveled to India
in the fifth to eighth centuries CE to visit holy Buddhist sites
and to search for original
manuscripts. While on their way, near present-day Peshawar, they saw
a huge stupa1 (height more than 200
meters), which was said to have been erected by the Kushan
emperor Kanishka the Great. From
the travel narrative of Faxian/Fa-Hsien (337–422 CE), who
visited the site c. 400 CE, we have
the following narration concerning the origin of this stupa:
When the Buddha was travelling in the
country in the past, he told Ānanda, “After
my nirvāna, there will be a king, named
Kaniška, who will intend to raise a stupa
at this spot.” Afterwards King Kaniška was
in the world; and when the king was
going on a tour of inspection, Śakra
[Indra], who intended that the king’s mind be
open to Buddhism, was raising a stupa on
the road, disguising himself as a little
cowherd. “What are you making?” the king
asked. He answered the king, “I am
making a Buddhist stupa.” The king, saying
that was marvellous, immediately
built another one right over the boy’s
stupa. The stupa is more than forty zhang
(400 chi3)
in height and decorated with various precious substances. Of all the
stupas and the vihāras that Faxian had seen
throughout his travels, nothing was
comparable with this as to its solemn
beauty and majestic grandeur. It had long
been said that among the stūpas in the
Jambudvīpa this stūpa stood out as by far
the best.
In the Da Tang Xiju ji (Great Tang
Account of the Western Region), there is the following
narration:4
About eight or nine li to the southeast of
the capital is a pippala tree more than
one hundred chi high.… Seated under this
tree and facing south, the Tathāgata
said to Ānanda, “Exactly four hundred years
after my departure from the world a
king will reign by the name of Kaniška, who
to the south of and not far from this
place will raise a stūpa where the relics
of the flesh and bone belonging to my
body will be much collected.” To the south
of the pippala tree is the stūpa that
was raised by Kaniška. In the four
hundredth year after the Tathāgata’s nirvāna,
Kaniška ascended the throne and governed the
whole of Jambudvīpa. He had no
faith either in crime or religious merit,
and he made light of the law of Buddha.
When he was out hunting in the wild
country, a white hare appeared. The king
went after it and came to a place where it
suddenly disappeared. Among the trees
the king saw a little cowherd making a
small stūpa that was three chi high, and
asked what he was doing. The boy replied,
“Formerly, Śakya Buddha, by his
divine wisdom, delivered the prophecy that
in this superior land a king would
build a stūpa that would contain a great
portion of my bodily relics. You exhibited
the sacred merits in former births, and
your name is a proper one for the
fulfilment of the old prophecy. Your
Majesty, with your divine merit rooted much
earlier, you have encountered this good
opportunity. Therefore now I am calling
your attention to this matter.” As soon as
he had spoken, he disappeared. Hearing
these words, the king’s heart became full
of joy, and he flattered himself that he
was the one referred to in the prophecy of
the great saint. Therefore, developing
the right belief and paying reverence to
the law of Buddha, he further built a stone
stūpa encasing the little stūpa, wishing to
cover it with his meritorious deed … the
stūpa measured more than four hundred chi
high, the circumference at the great
foundation being one and a half li and the
height of the five tiers being one
hundred fifty chi. The king, full of joy,
further raised on the top twenty-five rings
(parasols) of gilt bronze, through the
centers of which a post was standing
supporting them, and also placed the
śarīras of Tathāgata, one hu in quantity, in
the stūpa, and performed the religious
ceremony after the Buddhist custom.
From the biography of the Chinese
pilgrim Xuanzang / Hsüan-Tsang (596–664 CE) we
are informed about the size and
exact height of the Kaniskha Stupa:
To the east of the city is a large stupa of
King Kani (Kaniška). The foundation
measures one li in circuit. In the stūpa
are the bone śarīras of Buddha, one hu in
quantity. The total height is more than
five hundred chi. The rings (parasols) of
the finial are twenty-five. The stūpa has
three times caught fire, and now repair
work is going on. This is what has been
called the Qiaoli Stūpa. Empress-
Dowager Hu of Northern Wei, with her heart
of deep devotion, had the śramana
Daosheng and others sent there carrying
with them a big banner more than seven
hundred chi long, and they hung it on the
stūpa; the banner could just reach the
ground.
Stimulated
by nineteenth-century translations of these Chinese sources, Sir Alexander
Cunningham6 in 1871 identified mounds called Shāh-jī-kī Dherī lying
outside the Lahore Gate of
Peshawar
as the possible site of the Kanishka stūpa.7 The
first excavations in 1875 by C. A. Crompton led to the conclusion that “no
remains of this great stūpa existed” and that “it certainly is not worthwhile
continuing the explorations here.” However,
after A. Foucher reconfirmed the site in 1901, fresh
excavations were performed from 1908 to 1911 by David Brainerd Spooner
and H. Hargreaves.The excavations revealed a 54 m square
main stūpa with a semi-circular extension at each angle and a 15 m projection
on each side making a cross-form, surrounded by other smaller stūpas, fully
confirming the descriptions of the Chinese pilgrims. Spooner (1912, pp. 48–49)
described the discovery of the famous “Kanishka Casket” in a “relic chamber” in
March 1909 as follows;
A large pit, 24 feet square, was outlined covering the exact
centre of the
monument, and then taken downwards. A few feet below the
present surface of
the mound, traces were found of the very massive radiating
walls in the heart of
the stūpa, and these greatly delayed the progress of the
work, for we were anxious
not to remove any portion of these walls unnecessarily.
Avoiding these, therefore,
as much as possible, the pit was taken down by slow degrees
to a very low level
without result. Indeed, after several days’ digging we had
got down to what
seemed to be free earth, and had almost lost hope of finding
any relics at all, when
suddenly, and without warning, the remains of the relic
chamber were reached at
a point which proved to be two feet below the level of the
brick pavement
surrounding the stūpa as a whole…. [T]he definite “floor” of
the chamber was not
decorated or dressed anywhere except in the very corner
where the relic casket
stood. Here a little daub of chuna had been laid on, on
which the casket had rested
and wherein its outline was found clearly impressed when the
casket itself was
removed, but the rest of the floor was the plain unadorned
slab.
The
huge stūpa contributed immensely to the glory of Kanishka the Great as is
obvious
from
the Sogdian text:
namāču
ßarām awēn butānak šarīr farn
namāču
ßarām awēn akanišk astūpa ßarxar farn
namāču
ßarām awēn jētaßand ßarxār awēn nau ßarxār farn.
We
bring homage to the farn (majesty) of Buddha relics;
We
bring homage to the farn of Kanishka’s stūpa and vihāra;
We
bring homage to the vihāra of Jetavana,18 to
the farn of Nava-vihāra.
The Kanishka Casket
The
Kanishka Casket. (Sources: a. Wikipedia; b. Hargreaven 1930, Plate 10)
On
the gilded bronze casket Spooner (1912, pp. 55 ff) found the name of Kanishka
in dotted Kharoshthi script, but after many attempts it took nearly a century
until Harry Falk in 2002 could provide a sound translation of the inscription,
confirming that this huge stūpa indeed was established by this great Kushan
emperor:
In
the town Kanishkapura this perfume box … is the pious donation of the
architects
of the fire-hall, viz. of Mahāsena (and) Samgharakshita, in the
monastery
(founded by) the (Mahārā)ja Kanishka. / May it be for the welfare and
happiness
of all beings. / In the acceptance of the teachers of the Sarvāstivāda
school.
Before
this clear identification doubts that the depicted king was Kanishka the Great
were raised, as there is a non-bearded emperor with the sun god Miiro and
the moon god Mao athis sides, crowning him with wreaths of investiture, Miiro
having placed a second wreath (the first implicitly having been placed by the
investiture goddess Nana) and Mao still holding a third.
Detail of the Kanishka Casket (replica created 1964 in the
British Museum)
On
the other hand, all coins of Kanishka show a fully bearded emperor; in
particular, his first emissions, still using Greek language, show an
old-looking, fully bearded emperor make an offering at an altar with Nana, the
Kushan goddess of divine investiture16 on
the coin reverse. Later issues of Kanishka use Greek letters for inscriptions
in the Bactrian language.
Coin
of the fourth Kushan emperor Kanishka I, the Great, issued in the first year of
his reign; AE didrachm, 22 mm diameter, 12h, 8.4 g (Göbl #767);
obverse: king standing frontally, head with diadem and
pointed helmet to left clad in coat and trousers and cloak, sacrificing at
altar to left, holding spear in left hand, Greek legend: ΒΑCΙΛΕVC ΒΑCΙΛΕΩΝ ΚΑΝΗϷΚΟV (Ϸ is a special letter for “sh”); reverse: Nana right with
nimbate and diadem, clad in chiton and himation, radiate disc behind head,
right hand advanced holding ankus (?), tamgha in right field, Greek legend in
left field: ΝΑΝΑΙΑ.
Religions
under the Kushans: .
The Kushan Empire is famous for the abundant religious art works, especially sculptures. Even sculptures of kings and princes were found in religious settings. Thus one may say that the dynastic art was a part of religious art. Meanwhile, religious cults appeared on the coins—the dynastic symbol—to indicate religious devotion of a particular king. A variety of gods and cults were documented on Kushan coins - the Sumerian goddess Nana on her lion, Persian gods Oado and Atash, Indian cults of Buddha and Shiva. Zoroastrian fire worship left many remains. When the Kushans entered South Asia, they encountered both Brahmanism and Buddhism, and cults of both religions appeared on Kushan coins.
The Kushan Empire is famous for the abundant religious art works, especially sculptures. Even sculptures of kings and princes were found in religious settings. Thus one may say that the dynastic art was a part of religious art. Meanwhile, religious cults appeared on the coins—the dynastic symbol—to indicate religious devotion of a particular king. A variety of gods and cults were documented on Kushan coins - the Sumerian goddess Nana on her lion, Persian gods Oado and Atash, Indian cults of Buddha and Shiva. Zoroastrian fire worship left many remains. When the Kushans entered South Asia, they encountered both Brahmanism and Buddhism, and cults of both religions appeared on Kushan coins.
It seems the rulers from the steppe did not hold any particular religion
as their state religion. Various rulers favored different cults as shown on the
coins of the patron rulers. Yet religious institutions performed a crucial
function under the Kushan rule. The Kushan rulers patronized religious cults to
claim their legitimacy of ruling the conquered sedentary societies - the
Central Asian territory influenced by Persian religions, the Hellenistic
Bactria, and Brahmanical and Buddhist South Asia. The foremost source of their
legitimacy was no doubt the claim of divinity of their kingship. Rulers of
Kushans called themselves the “Son of the God” or the “Son the Heaven.” Its
translation in Chinese was the same as the appellation of a Chinese emperor,
which caused speculations about Yuezhi-Kushan’s relationship with Chinese. However,
worship of the heaven has prevailed in many tribes on the steppe. Kushans
probably, just like other tribes, claim the legitimacy of the chief from the
divinity of the heaven. While the faith of the divine origin of their kingship
was never shaking, the Kushan rulers might have changed the name of their
divine father. The family temple ( devakula in Sanskrit) of the Kushan royal
family was where patron deity or deities of the Kushans should be
worshipped.
Two devakulas so far discovered, one at Surkh Kotal in South Bactria
(Afghanistan) and another one at Mat near Mathura in north India. The devakulas
contained sculptures of Kushan rulers Kanishka and others. The statues of
Kanishka from Mat and Surkh Kotal are very similar. The temple at Surkh Kotal
was built by Kanishka, as testified by an inscription (sk 4). Two other statues
have not been identified, but one inscription (sk2) refers to an earlier king
Vima Kadphises. Among the statues from Mat, there were probably a statue of
Vima Kadphises and one of Huvishka, a king later than Kanishka, so that the two
devakulas might have existed in the same time frame. No detail of architecture
is available from the excavations of Mat. The temple at Surkh Kotal is Bactrian
Hellenistic in style. Six of the seven inscriptions are written with Greek
letters but a local Prakrit dialogue. The inscriptions from Mat were in
Karoshthi script and Prakrit language of Mathura region. With the statues of
Kushan rulers in the temples, the question is whether they were objects of
worship or rather represented the patrons of the temple, which was a common
religious practice in Central Asia and South Asia. Based on the excavations,
Fussman argued that the deities were worshiped in the Surkh Kotal temple were
not the Kushan rulers themselves. The temples were called devakula because they
serve the Kushan royal family. A more recently discovered inscription of the
Kushan ruler Kanishka may shed lights on the function of devakula. The
inscription was found at Rabatak, not far from Surkh Kotal. It was about
building a temple, housing both deities and kings. The deities in this case
were two Zoroastrian gods, Sroshard and Narasa, and the kings were the three
ancestors and Kanishka himself. The presence of statues of Kushan rulers in the
temple stresses the close relationship between the deities, whoever they were,
and the ruling clan.
Wima Kadphises and Huvishka were
closer to Shiva as shown by the images on their coins. Huvishka’s coins provide
a regular almanac of the iconography of the early Shiva cult. The deification
of the ruler which was so prevalent in the Roman and Hellenistic world as well
as among the Iranians was thus introduced into India and left a mark on the
future development of Hindu kingship.
Buddhism during Kushana Period:
An early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left
to right, a Kushan devotee, the Bodhisattva Maitreya,
the Buddha, the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, and a Buddhist monk. 2nd-3rd
century, Gandhara.
There is no doubt that the Kushan era was the
Golden Age of Buddhist art, and under Kanishka, Gandhara became a holy land, a
jewel of Buddhist civilization. Its art included the earliest known oil
paintings, and the first sculptural depictions of Bodhisatwas and the Buddha
himself. Gandhara artists sculpted and painted the Buddha in realistic detail,
with a serene face, hands posed in symbolic gestures. His hair was short,
curled and knotted at the top, and his robes were gracefully draped and folded.
His smile is unforgettable in its hypnotic beauty. Another aspect of his
personality can be observed in the unique statue of the Fasting Buddha which is
a part of the Lahore Museum's collection of Gandharan art. This school of
Kushan art is superior in every way to the Mathura school, although this
contains the only sculpted depiction of Kanishka, giant-size, sword in hand,
with its head missing.To describe the beautiful coinage of Kanishka is a story
unto itself, and many of these coins carry images of the ruler. The jewellery
and other artifacts of his time were fabulous in their exquisite variety. I am
fortunate to possess a black stone carved ring of Kanishka's era which my
husband was able to purchase from an antique dealer in Europe. In every
possible way this mesmerizing ruler was a man who brought mystic beauty and a
generous humanity to Northern India, but he left no viable successor, and after
his death the empire broke up and became fragmented. That syncretic world
vanished with his departure.
Though there was not an official state religion, Buddhism was no doubt
the dominant one and received greatest patronage from the Kushan rulers.
Several Buddhist monasteries were named after Kushan rulers, such as
“Kanishka’s monastery”, “Huvishka’s Monastery” etc. Kushan rulers were famous
for their patronage of Buddhism not only India. Buddhist literature eulogized
Kanishka as a royal patron second to the Mauryan king Ashoka. Though the legend
of Kanishka sponsored the fourth conference of the Buddhist sangha could not be
verified by royal inscriptions, Buddhism and Buddhist art flourished under the
Kushan regime demonstrates the popularity of the religion. Under the Kushan rule the center of Buddhist
activities moved from the mid and lower Ganges plain to the northwest region of
South Asian subcontinent. The legend of the begging bowl of the Buddha and
numerous other objects attracting pilgrims appeared in the northwest during the
Kushan period. The Kushans brought fortune to northwest region of South Asia,
not only through trade, but also by promoting religious activities.
The
Kushan Empire was also responsible for the spread of Buddhism to China. It was
also under the Kushan period Buddhist preachers with the surname “Zhi” appeared
in Luoyang and other major cities of China. The images of the Buddha and
Buddhist patrons, with strong Bactrian-nomadic Kushan flavor, were executed on
boulders at Kongwangshan on the east coast of China around the end of the
second century CE. The connections to the steppe people, and the tolerance and
patronage of multiple religions made the Kushan Empire the most efficient agent
of propagating Buddhism.
Fourth Buddhist
Council
During his reign, the famous Fourth Buddhist
Council was convened at Kundalavana Vihara in Kashmir. A select body of five
hundred scholars participated in this council, including Ashvaghosha, as well
as Vasumitra of the Sarvastivadin sect. This
Buddhist Council comprising of over 500 monks and scholars. At this meeting the
previously uncodified portions of Buddha’s discourses and the theoretical
portions of the canon were codified. The entire canon (the Tripitaka) was
inscribed on copper plates and deposited in a stupa. The Buddhist schools of
Sarvastivada, Mahayana, Madhyamika, and Yogachara were all well developed in
Kashmir. It also produced famous Buddhist logicians such as Dinnaga,
Dharmakirti, Vinitadeva, and Dharmottara. The main fruit of this Council was the vast
commentary, the Mahavibhasha, which was an extensive compendium and reference
work on a portion of the above-mentioned sect. The language used for these
texts was mainly Sanskrit.
Lokakṣema:
Lokakṣema (Ch: 支婁迦讖 Zhī Lóujiāchèn, sometimes abbreviated 支讖 Zhī Chèn), born around 147 CE, was the earliest known Buddhist monk to have translated Mahayana sutras into the Chinese language and as such was an important figure in Buddhism in China. The name Lokakṣema means 'welfare of the world' in Sanskrit.
.
Lokakṣema was the first Indian Monk who went to China to propagate Mahāyāna teachings. Among the texts he translated from Sanskrit into Chinese, the Sutra of the Practice of Prajñā-pāramitā (T08n0224) was the first in a series of prajñā-pāramitā sutras that laid the foundation of the Mahāyāna in China; the Sutra of Infinite Pure Equal Enlightenment (T12n0361) was the first of the five versions of the Amitāyus Sutra that arrived in China; both versions of the Sutra of Pratyutpanna Buddha Sammukhāvasthita Samādhi (T13n0417–18) prescribe an intense three-month Mation Retreat. .
Lokaksema was a Kushan of Yuezhi ethnicity from Gandhara. His ethnicity is described in his adopted Chinese name by the prefix Zhi (Chinese: 支), abbreviation of Yuezhi (Chinese: 月支). As a Yuezhi, his native tongue was one of the Tocharian languages, an Indo-European language group. He was born in Gandhara (presently known as a center of Greco-Buddhist art) at a time when Buddhism was actively sponsored by the Kushan Emperor Kanishka, who convened the Fourth Buddhist Council. The proceedings of this Council actually oversaw the formal split of Nikaya Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism. It would seem that Kanishka was not ill-disposed towards Mahayana Buddhism, opening the way for missionary activities in China by monks such as Lokaksema.Lokaksema came from Gandhara to the court of the Han dynasty at the capital Loyang as early as 150 and worked there between 178 and 189. A prolific scholar-monk, many early translations of important Mahāyāna texts in China are attributed to him, including the very early Prajñāpāramitā Sutra known as the "Practice of the Path" (Dào Xíng Bānruò Jīng 道行般若經), Pratyutpanna Sutra (Bān Zhōu Sānmèi Jīng 般舟三昧經), ādushì Wáng Jīng 阿闍世王經, Za biyu jing 雜譬喩經, Shou lengyan jing 首楞嚴經, Wuliang qingjing pingdeng jue jing 無量淸淨平等覺經, and the Baoji jing 寶積經 .The Sanskrit names of the sutras he translated are as follows: Astasahasrika, Aksobhyatathagatasyavyuha, Surangamasamadhisutra, an early version of a sutra connected to the Avatamsakasutra, Drumakinnararajapariprccha, Bhadrapalasutra, Ajatasatrukaukrtyavinodana, and the Kasyapaparivarta, which were probably composed in the north of India in the first century CE. Activity in China.Lokaksema's work includes the translation of the Pratyutpanna Sutra, containing the first known mentions of the Buddha Amitabha and his Pure Land, said to be at the origin of Pure Land practice in China, and the first known translations of the Prajñāpāramitā Sutra (The "Astasahasrika-prajnaparamita Sutras", or "Perfection of Wisdom Sutras of the practice of the Way", which later became known as the "Perfection of Wisdom in 8000 lines"), a founding text of Mahayana Buddhism.
Lokaksema's translation activities, as well as those of the Parthians An Shih Kao and An Hsuan slightly earlier, or the Yuezhi Dharmaraksa (around 286 CE) illustrate the key role Wikipedia:Central Asian|Central Asians had in propagating the Buddhist faith to the countries of East Asia.Another Yuezhi monk and one of Lokaksema's students named Zhi Yao (Chinese: 支曜), translated Mahayana Buddhist texts from Central Asia around 185 CE, such as the "Sutra on the Completion of Brightness" (Chinese: 成具光明經 Chengiu guangming jing).
Cosmopolitanism of the Kushan Regime
While the modern world of sedentary societies often look down upon nomads as inferior, a nomadic people some two thousand years ago not only indulged themselves in the high cultures of silk, wine, fragrances and other exotics from the Chinese, Greeks, Romans, Persians and Indians, but also imposed the equestrian culture, the high culture from the steppe, to the sedentary societies under their rule. It is worthwhile to ponder how the Kushans could reach the political cohesion that made the cultural achievements under their regime possible. The Kushan period left little records of the administration of the empire but numerous religious inscriptions. Those inscriptions recorded donations and patronage of religious institutions -Buddhism, Brahmanism, Jainism etc. - by the Kushan rulers and nobles, and more often, by their subjects. Whether voluntarily or obligatory, the donors and patrons of the ruled society referred the dates of the reigns and offered to share the religious merits gained from the donations with the rulers. As little as we know, there is no evidence of religious conflicts or rebellions against the rulers. In stead, there are abundant evidences of religious prosperity and expansion, of flourishing commerce and urban life. One may speculate that Kushan subjects did attribute some of their fortune to the rulers who ruled with a cosmopolitan vision.
Military
Campaigns
Quite different from the failed Bactrian and Saka attempts at
empire-building in northwest India was the Kushan Empire——it actually covered a
part of northern India for almost a hundred years. The Kushan Empire's
relative success was due, in part, to the absence of any empire or strong
kingdom in North India at that time. But, as described elsewhere, the Satvahan
Empire in the Deccan delivered at least one major defeat to the Kushans at the
height of their power in India.
After consolidating his hold on the core Kushan lands in
northwestern Punjab, Afghanistan, and Bactria, Kanishka also received the
submission of Kushan governors in eastern Iran (Khorasan) and Central Asia
(Khotan). The Chinese author Fu fa-tsang yin yuan
chuan (470 CE), writing on Kanishka's wars
in Iran states, "The two armies joined battle, and the daggers and
swords were raised incessantly. Thereupon king Kanishka gained the victory, and
he killed altogethor 900,000 parthians."
The Saka Kshatraps in Baluchistan and Sindh, who had probably
regained independence due to the Kushan infighting, were tackled next. Their
submission brought in additional armed strength to the empire, which was used
against the Indian warrior clans and kingdoms in that region.
Kanishka was probably present at the conquest of Ujjain from the
Malavs, on which occasion a new era called Varsha (78 CE) was established by
these foreigners. It was done to erase all memories of the Samvat era (57 BCE)
of the Malavs….a memory of an Indian victory over the foreigners.
But as described here this region was left semi-independent under
the Kshaharat Sakas. Kanishka rturned to his capital and, sometime later, began
a campaign against the eastern Indian lands. Before becoming the emperor,
Kanishka had been the Kushan governor of western UP, from where he led raids
into the east to acquire the wealth that financed his fight for the throne. He
certainly had a good knowledge of the conditions in eastern India, the
heartland of the ancient Maurya, Shunga, and Kanva Empires, but now in a state
of political confusion.
Kanishka's military campaign in this region is mentioned by
Chinese and Tibetan texts——although some of his coins have been found here, the
quantity is too minute to suggest conquest. What is more likely is that these
were temporary raids since no governor was appointed and no epigraphs inscribed
by any vassal king…..Indian texts mention that the Buddhist philosopher
Asvaghosa was carried off by Kanishka from Pataliputra, which would not be
necessary if that important city was included in his empire.
While Kanishka was consolidating the Kushan Empire, the Chinese
general Pan Chao was leading a campaign west (73-94 CE) against the tribes far
away from the Chinese frontier. Skirting the Tibetan Plateau and crossing the
Pamirs, Pan Chao claimed to have subdued the rulers of Khotan and Kashghar in
Central Asia. This challenged Kushan rule in the region and Kanishka sent an
army against the Chinese…..suffering greatly in crossing the mountain ranges
the Kushan army was badly defeated.
But some years later another campaign against China brought better
results and a Chinese prince was taken hostage and kept in the Kushan dominions1.
No major campaigns are known for the successors of Kanishka——it
seems that the empire's hold on northern India was effective only in his reign.
This will become clear in the history of the contemporary Indian warrior clans
to be described later.
As shown earlier the Kushan Empire suffered its biggest defeat at
the hands of the Satvahan Empire, in the loss of lands and the killing of its
Saka viceroy in Gujarat-Malwa. But the Emperor Kanishka II recovered the territory within a few
years. The long reign of the next ruler Vasudeva (145-176 CE) saw the
unmistakable decline of the empire…..new states grew in the Ganga-Yamuna
plains, the traditional opponents of the foreigners in Punjab, Haryana and
Rajasthan gained territory and power.
It is quite striking that of all the Kushan and Saka governors in
the former empire, only one, the Mahakshatraps of Gujarat emerged as an independent power. This suggests that
the other foreign governors were overthrown by the Indian warrior clans in
different parts of the empire.
The power of the Kushan kings was maintained in the core of their
kingdom in eastern Iran (Khorasan), Kabul, Bactria, and Gandhar (northwest
Punjab). But new threats emerged to trouble the Kushans——from the north the
Juan-Juan tribe and from the east the Sassanians pressed into their dominions.
The Kushans were obliged to pay tribute to the Sassanians but later won their
independence and formed an equal alliance with them. In 360 CE the Sassanian
king Shapur II won a victory over the Roman Empire with the aid of an aged king
named "Grumbates"…..believed to be the Kushan ruler Kidara.
Samudra Gupta of the Gupta Empire defeated
the Kushans and received homage2 from them….his son
Chandra Gupta II led a campaign across Punjab and Afghanistan into Bactria (412
CE). This was in the nature of a successful military raid that did not lead to
any permanent conquest. The Kushans, now reduced to being a minor power, had to
face yet another power in their later history…..the Huns.
Evidence of Kushana Kingdom:
The Kushana
empire stretching from the banks of river Oxus to the Ganges,
united parts of Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan and north India into a
single state formation. This political unification of land and people with diverse
ethnic backgrounds, languages, cultures and religions, provided a
fertile ground
for the fusion of different cultural elements giving rise to a distinctive
Kushana culture of an international character. The Kushana civilization as a
whole was marked by many common features, giving an impression of unity and yet there were
regional variations and distinctiveness. We can discern multiple microcosms within the
macro-Kushana civilization with their own regional characters.
Archaeology provides a tool for studying
cultures and civilizations ofthe past. Apart from numismatic and epigraphic
testimonies discussed in the previous chapter, the material culture from the
excavated and explored sites throws valuable light on various aspects of
Kushana history. Explorations or surface collections are the common techniques
used for locating ancient sites of archaeological importance and on the basis
of explored remains the potentiality of a site can be judged. Both
archaeological excavations and explorations over this vast territory from Central
Asia to north India have brought to light numerous sites with rich Kushana
antiquities. Apart from Kushana coins
and inscriptions, presence of large size bricks (approximately 37-35 23-24 7-5 cm, sometimes with three finger marks),
baked tiles forflooring, monumental brick structures, coin moulds, votive
tanks, brick stupas adorned with sculptures, red ware, red polished ware, etc.,
are some deciding features for identifying sites of Kushana period. Mud
constructions of Northern Black Polished Ware (hence NBPW) phase were mostly
replaced by well planned structures of
large sized baked bricks in the Kushana phase.
Pottery is
considered to be the alphabets of archaeology. It helps in the identification
of cultures, rebuilding their sequence and reconstructing the material life of
the inhabitants of a site. The archaeological levels of the Kushana period in
India, corresponding to the first three centuries of the Christian era, are
marked by the absence of both NBPW and Black and Red Ware (BRW) and
predominence of Red Ware and Red Polished ware.
The typical Kushana pottery shapes are
sprinklers, bowls with incurved sharp edged rims, carinated handis and vases,
bottle-necked jars, incense burners, knobbed lids, inkpot type lids, dishes
with vertical sides and flat bases, etc.
The fabric of the Red Ware ranges from medium to coarse and the sections from
thin to thick. Except for large storage jars, the whole range of pottery is wheel
made and only in certain cases ill-fired. It is usually treated with a wash but
sometimes with bright-red slip. The red polished ware found in a limited quantity
is made of well legivated clay and is fired perfectly. Its fabric is fine to medium
and the slip vary from orange to light red. The pottery of this early historical
period is almost unpainted but mostly decorated with incised designs or stamped
motifs on the exterior of the rim or at shoulders. Even a cursory look at the
archaeological materials, brings out a picture of economic prosperity during
the Kushana period, when existing urban centres expanded and new ones came up.
We can discern a marked increase in settlements, both rural and urban, as new
habitational pockets were formed. The levels, contemporary to the Kushana rule
at various sites, which for the sake of brevity may be called the Kushana
levels, are one of the most prosperous levels in terms of money circulation,
size, cultural thickness, habitational deposits, structural activity,
sculptures, etc. Cities were as a rule more affluent than villages, with the
concentration of money, precious and semi precious stones, metal objects, ivory
objects and other luxury products.
In the Kushan period the majority of evidence comes from Mathura, both
from the Jain site of Kankali Tila, and from Buddhist sites in the city. There
are also images from Ahichhhatra to the north-east and the northern-most
example of the Indian style Sanghol. All of these sites shared a common set of
proportions. The face was round (rather than oval) in shape. Not as round as the
faces at Nagurjunikonda, but noticeably more so than in contemporary Gandharan
images. The eyes were placed two-thirds of the way up the face (an interesting
position, because it is unnatural and shows that the artists were not working
from life models, but from an ideal). Using the head as a measure, the bottom
of the breasts were placed one heads height below the chin. The top of the
girdle was placed one heads length beneath that, and the whole figure stood
seven heads high. The crotch was placed midway between the top and bottom of
the figure. These basic proportions are obeyed throughout the formal sculptures
of Mathure, regardless of whether they are Jain or Buddhist. In addition the
female figures assume a particular posture called the tribangha or 'pose of the
three bends', bent at the hips, waist, and breasts (sometimes with the head
cocked), to provide an S like shape. .
John F Mosteller (1987) has gone further than this and shown that for male figures at least these proportions can be explained in the terms used by later sources implying that those sources contain a genuine record of an older artistic practice. It is worth noting that this is not the case for terracotta figures, even a small sample of which is enough to show that they did not obey any rules regarding proportions (see for examples Srinivasan, 1996). If this is because proportions were not considered important or because production was less controlled and centralised is unclear.
Of course proportions are not sufficient to describe Kushan images of women. There are many other aspects, such as the ornaments they wear (necklaces, earings, bangles about the legs and wrists), the tied back hair, the girdles and the nudity, which combine to give these figures their sensual quality. We shall now turn to one of those qualities, the one which is most striking to a modern audience.
John F Mosteller (1987) has gone further than this and shown that for male figures at least these proportions can be explained in the terms used by later sources implying that those sources contain a genuine record of an older artistic practice. It is worth noting that this is not the case for terracotta figures, even a small sample of which is enough to show that they did not obey any rules regarding proportions (see for examples Srinivasan, 1996). If this is because proportions were not considered important or because production was less controlled and centralised is unclear.
Of course proportions are not sufficient to describe Kushan images of women. There are many other aspects, such as the ornaments they wear (necklaces, earings, bangles about the legs and wrists), the tied back hair, the girdles and the nudity, which combine to give these figures their sensual quality. We shall now turn to one of those qualities, the one which is most striking to a modern audience.
The Iron Gates and
the frontier of the Kushan empire:
The
parallel between the ethnonym of the Asioi-Asianoi and the Alans and the
cultural connections between the latter and the aristocratic tomb of Koktepe
imply that the territory concerning the 'Ases' or 'Asians' is the territory of
the Kangju confederation (or a subdivison of this) located to the west of the
Iron Gates between south-western Kazakhstan and western Uzbekistan. As 'As', a
member of this Kangju aristocracy west of the Iron Gates and perhaps
the
son or grandson of the vanquisher of the Sacaraucae and heir of the treasures
of the Sai and Yuezhi (?), the king of Tillya Tepe can be considered, with the
princess of Koktepe, to be among the earliest 'Scythian' representatives of the
Sarmatian and Alan aristocracies later encountered along the western routes
towards Central Europe. After these historical events illustrated by the rich
burials on the western periphery of the former Graeco-Bactrian kingdom, the
reconstruction of the Derbent wall emphasizes the following, post-Sacaraucae,
international balance of power. It is evidence of another stage of the rivalry
between the newly sedentarized Kushan empire
and
the still 'nomadic' Kangju on the other side of the Hisllar range. The
opposition between the Kangju and the Kushans is best illustrated from a
cultural point of view by their respective relations with the earlier Graeco-Bactrian
world.
The
Kushans appear to have been more deeply hellenized as a consequence of their
location in the heart of Central Asian hellenism, while the Kangju remained at
the northern periphery of a territory which the Graeco-Bactrian power never controlled
for long periods, as shown by the excavations at Samarkand. It is therefore
exaggerated to reduce their difference to a pure nomad-sedentary scheme. The
contrast seems particularly well illustrated by the comparison of some of the
art objects discovered on both sides of the frontier wall of the Iron Gates.
The engraved bone plaques found at Orlat in the region of Koktepe and dated by
Jangar Ilyasov (2003) to the first-second centuries AD present the portraits of
Kangju warriors and hunters, who probably belonged to the same social context
as the aristocracy of Koktepe (Rapin et
af. 200 I).While the Prologue XLII
of Justin mentioned an early defeat of the Yuezhi, the mural reliefs which
decorated the palace of Khalchayan (Pugachenkova 1971) to the east of the Iron
Gates commemorated the triumph of the Kushans led by Kujula Kadphises. over
their western 'Scythian' neighbours (Bernard 1987). This event occurred
probably after the union of the five yabghu
by Kujula Kadphises but, according to F. Grenet, should more precisely
be dated just before AD 47 (Grenet 2000). The similarity of the collared armour
of the defeated warriors of Khalchayan with that of the warriors of arlat or
the sovereigns' portraits on coins have been already observed in the
studies of recent decades. 54 The engraved bone plaques of Takht-i Sangin
(Litvinsky 2001; I1yasov 2003) and the sculptures of Khalchayan illustrate
respectively
the nomadic and sedentary versions of Kushan art at the beginning of the
first century AD.
In the same period, in the south and in the west, the Kushans replaced
the IndoParthian sovereigns. In the north-west, however, the fortification of
Derbent becomes not only a political frontier, but also an economic and
cultural border, as it can be observed that the early phases of Buddhism- with
its pilgrims and related merchants-never extended beyond Derbent.
Principle city
of Kushana Bactria was Balkh (north Afghanistan), which apart from
being a centre of Kushana polity was also an important trade centre and a Buddhist
town. Two great highways of Central Asia to China met at the junction of Balkh.
A Khotanese manuscript found at Tun-huang states that Chandra Kanishka ruled in
Balkh.
According to Huien Tsang, the largest
monastery of Navasangharama was situated outside the city in the
southwest. Many towns with thick
defensive walls, studded with rectangular towers and a planned rectangular
layout with temples and cult centres in the middle, have been laid bare around
the city, which according to Soviet scholars were built in accordance with
"a single elaborate plan".
Numerous settlement sites have been brought to
light by Soviet scholars, around Balkh which followed the square towered walls
and fortification plan. Topraka Qala is a large square urban site surrounded by monumental
ramparts with square towers, internal galleries and many arrow slits on the
outside. It is a purely Kushana town with remains of a large stupamonastery complex.
Aq-Chapar is again a purely
Kushana settlement with a large polyhedral monumental building measuring 130
metre in diameter. It is surrounded by a double ring of outer walls with a
gallery in between, pierced by embrasures and reinforced by salients measuring
4 metre square.
Zadiyan
has a stupa monument of the Kushana period and
Tepe Zargaran dates from the 2 century A.D. Kumsar is a large
L-shaped Kushana urban site (c. 400 ,500 m.) with 12
metre high rampart with rectangular corner nd towers and an internal gallery.
Similarly, Toprar
Kala, Yarti Gumbaz, Jige Tepe and settlement number 99, 753, 475 and
800 of W. Balls's Archaeological Gazetteer seem to be a part of Balkh complex.
Termez (in
Uzbekistan) was another old town of Kushana Bactria where two large monasteries
have been found on the mound of Kara-Tepe and near Chinghiz-Tepe. The excavations at Kara Tepe revealed a 2ND
century A.D. Buddhist monastery hewn out of rock, along with "bronze"
(copper) coins
of Kushana rulers, Bactrian and Brahmi inscriptions on ceramics, walls of one
of the cave temples, large scale gypsum sculptures, stone reliefs, wall
paintings, etc.
Termez is usually associated with the high
relief, Buddhist sculptures of Airtam which are compared to the analogous
monuments of Gandhara art. These reliefs clearly show that the Bactrians were
familiar with both Graeco-Roman and Indian sculptures. Apart from an
inscription of Huvishka's reign The report on the excavations at AirtamTermez
site reveals that coins of Vasudeva-I were discovered in an 8 feet 4 inches
deep stratum.
A peculiar square masoleum of Kushana period
built of square unbaked bricks was discovered, 16 km. to the north of Termez.
The external length of the walls of this structure is about 18 metre, with a
round room of 4 metre in diameter, in the centre, from which 140 centimetre
wide 4 passages are radiating. Some typical Kushana pottery was found on the
passage floors alongwith a large number of bones.
The archaeological expedition of the Institute
of History and Archaeology of the Uzbek Academy of Sciences, brought to light
three Kushana towns in the Surkhan Darya region viz. Dalverzin
Tepe (in Angor district of Uzbekistan), Hairabad-Tepe and Zara-Tepe, of which
Dalverzin Tepe is the largest. This one kilometer long site revealed Buddhist
buildings with remarkable sculptures of the Kushana period, terracotta
statuettes and poorly preserved copper coins typologically related to the
period between 1rd century A.D. The population
of Dalverzin Tepe was estimated to have 10,000 to 5,000 inhabitants.
The excavations
of Hairabad-Tepe and ZaraTepe marked out citadels built in the southeast
corners of the towns. The Hairabad-Tepe
town site (150 m 100 metre) is situated 30 kilometre to
the north of Termez. The excavation at the citadel revealed that though the
city developed in the 3rd
century B.C., the main fortifications of the
town site were constructed under the Kushanas.
The site also revealed coins of Kujula Kadphises,
Kanishka and Huvishka from its flourishing levels, after which a period of
decline and neglect set in.
Some repair work of the fortification was done
in the period of 3rd and 4th century A.D., which was characterized by discoveries
of coins of Vasudeva and early Sassanian ruler Hormizd II. The excavation of
Zara-Tepe town site (400 m 400 metre), situated 4 kilometre to
the south of Hairabad Tepe, revealed as many as two hundred Kushana coins,
terracotta statuettes, fragments of gypsum sculpture and Kushana pottery.
Base of columns and other fragments of
architectural décor made of marl limestone were discovered on the surface of
the town site. Karaul-Tepe in Angor district of Uzbekistan is
another site which sprang in the Kushana period.
The site of Tali-Barzu, south of
Samarkand has yielded numerous figurines of the early Kushana period,
reflecting different forms of worship.
Khalchayan in upper
Surkhan Darya yielded remnants of an old palace and dwelling houses of
pre-Kushana and Kushana period, along with ossuaries, coins, figurines, pottery
and remarkable sculptures, including the clay bust of a king, whose face
resembles the portrait on the earliest coins of Miaos or Heraeus.
Kampyrtepa is a
systematically excavated city-site, situated 30 kilometre west of Termez, on
the northern bank of Amu Darya in the
Surkhandarya region of Uzbekistan. A joint archaeological fieldwork by scientists
from the Moscow Museum of Oriental Art, the Institute of Archaeology of the
Russian Academy of Sciences, from Japan and France, led to the unearthing of an
almost full city-site, along the upper cultural horizon dating from the reign
of Kushana ruler Kanishka.
During the excavations of 2007, nine period of
habitation (KT-1 – KT-9) were identified dating from the end of the 4th century B.C. upto the middle of the 2 century A.D.,
of which KT-7 – KT-9 relate to the early Kushana and Kushana periods.
In the general
periodization, Period VII (1st half of the 1ST century B.C. – mid 1 century A.D.) relates to
the conquest of Kampyrtepa under Soter Megas. In Period VIII (end of the 1st century A.D. – beginning of the 2nd century A.D.) a rich layer of human occupation
was discovered and Period IX corresponds to the Kushana period.
Kampyrtepa was seized by the Kushanas in the
reign of Soter Megas (Wema Takto) and became a big population centre with an
area of more than 20 hectares. The city-site expanded considerably under the Kushanas
extending 700-750 metre from east to west and 200-250 metre from north to
south.
It consisted of four main organizational
elements – citadel, upper city, suburban zone and the lower city. Although the
citadel came up during the Hellenistic times, the infrastructure and
architectural plan of the settlement took shape during the Kushana period.
During the Kushana rule the citadel served as a large living and warehouse
complex. The upper city was enclosed with the fortress wall with eleven towers
and encircled with a moat. The inner organization of the city was formed by a 4
metre wide central street dividing the upper city into two parts, the eastern
and the
western, with
1.3 – 1.5 metre narrow side alleys or gallaries delineating eleven blocks of
domestic quarters.
Of these, block 1 and block 5 appear to have
had social and cult functions respectively. In the reign of Kanishka I, a
Buddhist sanctuary was erected in one of the "gallery" area.
The suburban
127st
zone
consisted of the western and eastern necropolises with various burial
construction of
Zoroastrian type. The lower city served for trade and craft purpose and was
situated along the Amu darya. In the Kushana period, the city became a station
of customs control and warehouse and a merchant point for caravan trade. The
artifacts dating from the Kushana period are multiform pottery, a metal dish,
weapons and utensils, jewellery, various terracotta statuettes and about 600
bronze (copper) coins of Soter Megas, Wema Kadphises and Kanishka I. Kampyrtepa
ceased to exist soon after the reign of Kanishka I and only towers 10 and 11 of
the fortress wall, well dated by Huvishka coins, were being used for burying the
deceased.
Exploration in south Uzbekistan have located
ruins of a number of little villages and small towns, the beginning of which
can be dated to the Kushana period. The ratio between these towns and villages
is 1:6 which is much better than the pre-Kushana phase suggesting a greater
rate of urbanization in the Kushana age.
In Tajikistan,
excavation at the town sites of Kalai-Mir and Key-Kobad
Shah (Kobadian) show an ascendancy of the Kushana power. The archaeological
stratum Kobadian IV has been called Kushana and its ceramics have been compared
to the last period of Begram I and Begram II which are characterized by the
coins of early Kushana and Kanishka and his successors respectively.
Takht-i-Kobad in Kafirnigan
valley, Parkhar in Vakhsh valley and Yavan have revealed
artifacts and architectural remnants related to Kushana period.
In the territory of Khwarejm about 60 Kushana
coins were retrieved including 6 of Wema Kadphises, 8 of Kanishka, 9 of
Huvishka and 18 of Vasudeva. The excavations at Toprak-Kala revealed
fortified residence, 128 palatial halls with wall paintings, sculptures,
numerous documents in Khorezmian script written on leather and wood and atleast
twenty-two Kushana coins including four coins of Wema Kadphises, three of
Kanishka,three of Huvishka and six of Vasudeva.
The excavation of the estate near the fortress
of Ayax-Kala also yielded Kushana coins in a stratified layer.
In Kirghizia, Kara-Bulak and Batken have
revealed tombs of 2nd centuries A.D. with Indian and Chinese objects.
Kurgans of the late Kushan period have been
identified in Chatkal valley and over 100,000 rock
engravings of
various periods have been located in Saimaly-Tash which seems to include
Kushana period as well. Great quantities
of Kushana coins have been discovered from different parts of Sogdiana
including cities like Samarkand, Talibarzu and Bokhara.The enormous hill-fort
of ancient Samarkand yielded cultural remains of many periods including pottery
and terracotta statuettes of Kushana period.
The excavation
at the fortified town of Talibarzu established the presence of six
cultural layers of which the complexes of Talibarzu I, II and III
(partially)belong to the Kushana period. The Kurgan burial sites of the Kushana
epoch in the Bukhara Oasis examined by scholars like O.V. Obelchenko, have been
divided into two major groups, according to their dating, i.e. those of the period
ranging from the end of the 2nd century B.C. to the 1st century A.D., and those belonging to the
period from the 2nd to the 4th century A.D. These tombs yielded a large
number of antiquities such as ceramics, jewellery, metal objects iron, bones
and bronze weapons, etc.
In ancient Ustrushana, the town site
of Munchaq-Tepe and the adjacent burial ground Shirin-Sai was excavated.
The finding of Chinese coins, pebbles with Chinese inscriptions and bronze
mirrors attest to eastern contacts on one hand,
while the find of Roman denarii of the 1st- 2nd AD
suggest trade links with Europe.
The Kushanas
acted as intermediaries between the eastern and western world, thus amassing
huge profits from this transit trade. At Tudai Kalan remains of a
small fortified settlement with square towers at the corners and arrow shaped
loopholes were revealed, along with several building complexes, the earliest of
which relate to the 3rd century A.D.
A castle and an estate standing high on a stylobate
of unbaked bricks, with three basic construction stages related to the 1st century A.D. have been unearthed at Tudai
Khurd.
Other settlements traced in Ustrushana and
Western Fergana region are Mugh-tepe, the Somgor settlement, the settlements in
the Isfana-Sai, Khodzha Baryrgan-Sai basins and the fortresses on the cliffs in
the Isfara Darya basin.
In the Fergana valley, all the household
utensils and monuments of art bear traces of direct cultural impact of the
Kushana state. This area is also noted for an extreme abundance of Kushana
coins suggesting its inclusion in the Kushana domain.
Ancient Naksheb in the lower reaches of the
Kashka Darya, is situated at the junction of Sognd and Tukharistan. The
material culture of this area indicates pronounced socio-economic development
around 1st century A.D. with
numerous large settlements following different architectural patterns.
Some
settlements have a castle in the centre, like Kalai-Zakhaki-Moran, while in
others like Mudin-tepe, the castle is located in a corner. At Pirmattepe, a multiroomed
castle in a maze of processional corridors and fortified entrance towers were
built by successive Kushana nobility.
In the region of Chach
(Tashkent), the Kaunchi II culture and Djun cultures belonging to the period
between the early centuries before Christ and first century A.D. have been
identified with the Kushana period.
Sites in Afganistan:
British explorer Charles Masson
discovered the site of Begram in 1833, which proved to be a veritable mine of
ancient coins. Begram (ancient Kapisa) is situated at the confluence of the
Panjsher and Ghorband rivers, about 80.5 kilometre north of Kabul and 8
kilometre west of the modern town of Charikar.
By the end of 1837, Masson had
collected nearly thirty thousand coins in all, including the coins of 'Soter
Megas' and other Kushana rulers. About
one thousand six hundred and forty seven coins, both of the Kadphises and the Kanishka
group were reported in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal by Masson. It appears that there was a mint at
Begram close to the rich copper deposits
of the Ghorband valley.
A Foucher identified Begram with
Kapisa, the capital of several Indo-Greek kings and the summer residence of the
Kushana emperors. It was located at the juncture of two main trade routes cutting
off from the major silk route; one from Balkh to Bamiyan to Peshawar to Taxila;
the other leading down the Panjesher valley from Badakhshan,Turkistan and
Chinese Sinking. The French Archaeological
Mission in Afghanistan carried out limited excavations between 1936 and 1946
under Hackin, Ghirshman and Menuie, while in 1967-68 Afghan Archaeological Department
carried some further work.
Ghirshman's
excavation revealed three phases of occupation at the site.
Begram I (2nd century B.C. to 2century A.D.) is marked by
the coins of the Pahlava dynasty as well as those of "the first and second
Kushana dynasties". Begram II (mid 2 Nd century A.D. to mid 3rd century A.D.) belongs to the Great Kushanas
till the probable destruction by the Sassanian King Shapur-I in about 244 A.D.
Begram III (mid 3rd century A.D. to the fifth century A.D.) is
related to the Kushano-Sassanian period.
Most
spectacular discovery from Begram was that of numerous profane luxury goods
alongside rare Buddhist objects from Room No. 10 and 13 of the so-called
palace, related to first-second century A.D. These luxury objects include
plaster models for silver plaques and bas-reliefs from the Graeco-Roman world,
carved ivories from India, Chinese lacquer ware of the Han period, Hellenistic
bronze figurines such as a 24.1 centimetre high statue of Serapis-Hercules,
Phoenician glassware from Tyre and Sidon.
Begram II also yielded beautiful ornamental jewellery including a gold
bracelet with sockets for 46 rubies, gold earings inlaid with turquoise and
undecorated bronze ear rings. These objects testify to the international trade
in luxury items reflecting the cosmopolitanism and wealth of this important
Kushana commercial centre.
Begram
seems to have been an important nuclear centre for urbanization during the
Kushana period. Many sites in the vicinity of Begram such as Topdarra
with a stupa and two monasteries, Khwaja Seh Yaran,with a stupa-monastery complex and Paitava, with a stupa and a monastery,have been
assigned to the Kushana period on the basis of architectural style.Kuh-i-Bacha and Kafir Qala, with a stupa and a large
rectangular platform seem to be a part of the Begram urban complex. Qand-i-Pir, a village-town site that came up
in the Kushana period, yielded plain red Kushana pottery with no evidence of
earlier occupation and a fairly large stupa of around 10 metre height and
considerable horizontal expanse. Chai
Khanjar and
Deh-iQazi
also yielded Kushana pottery and are thus identified as Kushana settlements
along with Tepe Tup
where a Kushana building was discovered.
The
above mentioned sites fall in Parwan or Kapisa districts and seem to be a part
of Begram complex of urbanization. The royal sanctuary of Surkh Kotal in the vicinity of Baghlan, 15 kilometre
north of Pul-i-khumri, was excavated by the French Archaeological Mission in
Afghanistan, under Daniel Schlumberger from 1952-63.
This purely Kushana site consists of a hilltop
complex containing a main temple and a square cella marked by four stone column
bases, surrounded by an ambulatory on three sides. This secondary temple,
leaning against the exterior wall of the main temple, has been identified as a
fire temple by
Schlumberger,
on the basis of a platform in the centre of the cella accessible by a flight of
steps, the cavity of which was filled with grey ash. A staircase of massive
proportions is laid from top to bottom of the hilltop complex and connects four
terraced embankments. Schlumberger dated the temple to the "Grand Kushana
period" or the 2nd century A.D. Archaeological excavation at the
site yielded fourteen Kushana coins including two of Huvishka. An inscription
at the entrance of the staircase in Greek script and the Bactrian language, of
the year 31 describes the repair of a temple called Kaneshko Oanindo Bagolaggo (Kanishka
victorious sanctuary) by Nobonzokom (Nokonzoka), who seems to be the district
superintendent. According to the inscription, he got the building surrounded by
a wall, a well was dug and appointed an overseer for the sanctuary. The use of
large sized mud bricks along with stone at Surkh Kotal, as well as the plan of
the temple reflects the
influence
of Iranian tradition of architecture as is seen in the Achaemenid period.
We can see an unparalleled mixture of
different artistic trends in the sculptural decoration of Surkh-Kotal temple.
Two sculptures were recovered from the building. One of these, a badly
weathered headless, standing male figure with heavy drapery and jewellery, in
local sand-stone, has been compared with the well-known Kanishka figure, by
Schlumberger.
Other notable decorations in the building
include stepped merlons of oriental tradition, a stone frieze of Gandhara style
and a series of unbaked and painted clay figures. One of the statues in the
merlon appear to be that of the sun-god of the Mathura tradition. The establishment of the Kushana dynastic shrine
suggests that Surkh Kotal was an important centre during the Kushana period.
The Rabtak inscription that sheds valuable light on the genealogy and chronology
of the Kushanas, was also found near Surkh Kotal. According to the inscription
King Kanishka in year 1 of his reign, commanded Shapara, the master of the
city, to make a Nana sanctuary at the site, for the deities-Sri, Pharro and
Omma.
A cluster of settlement-sites numbered 148,
1232, 1123 and 169 can be noticed in and around Baghlam. Kunduz in north Afghanistan, probably continued
to be an important town during the Kushana rule. A hoard of tetradrachms of
Attic weight conforming to the Bactrian-Greek style near Kunduz confirms that
it was a flourishing Greek enclave.
Remains of Graeco-Buddhist art with Indian influence,
of 4th centuries A.D. have
found around Kunduz. Durman Tepe, lying
about 12 kilometre southwest of Kunduz, yielded a small tepe measuring about 60
metre in diameter and 20 metre in height. The Kyoto University Archaeological
Mission excavated several rooms made of mud brick and six stone pillar bases of
Hellenistic style.
Several
Kanishka and Vasudeva coins were recovered along with Kushano-Sassanian gold
coins. Chaqalaq Tepe,
situated south of Durman Tepe, is a large tepe, 150 120 metre in diameter and 20 metre in height,
with three archaeological strata.
The lower one seems to have been a Buddhist
monument of Kushana period. The enclosure wall was made of mud-blocks about 5
metre in height and the eastern gate had an arched ceiling, outside which two
groups of buildings for guard-rooms were found. The buildings of Kushana period
were made of mud bricks and were plastered. The Kyoto University Archaeological
Mission found store rooms, living-rooms, cooking rooms, store pits, bakery
ovens, a blacksmith's work room, a central staircase and a big room with twenty
big jars and two detached pillar bases. Other antiquities of this site include
a stone lid of a big jar with a design of lotus, lions and makara along the edge, similar to the Mathura
and Amaravati Schools, a square stone block with reliefs of a Bodhisattva and a
standing man on both sides, representing the Kushana style; a Buddha head, one
seated Buddha and several stone fragments of a stupa.
Kirghiz
tepe is
another Kushana site in Kunduz, with a fortified rectangular settlement and a
citadel. Qush Tepe has a very large mound with a square structure
characteristic of the Kushana period. Other villagetown settlement sites in
Kunduz include Chim Qurghan, Kafir Qala, Qunjugha and
settlement number 943, 931, 309, 172, 472, 83, 210 and 28 in Ball's Gazetteer.
In Badakhshan, Gauhar and Ghurdarama are ceramically identified as single culture
Kushana settlements. Ghurdarama is a fortified settlement with two mounds
containing mud bricks measuring 38 38 centimetre. The fortification walls are of stone with
square towers. A tower measuring 560 metre is in the south direction. The
antiquities include Kushana ceramics
and an unworked
piece of lapis. Gauhar is a settlement with a citadel in a naturally defensible
position. Badakhshan has also yielded a large number of Later Kushana coins.
5
The town sites of Bolar and Andarab situated
at the southern limit of Bactria with an unexcavated Buddhist ruins have been
traced. In north Afghanistan, Takhar and
Samangan are the other provinces where
villagetown sites multiplied in the Kushana period. Sish Kaik, Kafir
Qala and
Gugari in Takhar
province form a cluster of settlements which came up during the Graeco-Bactrian
period but continued in the Kushana age. Other Kushana settlements in Takhar
are Kalafgan, Kalafgan South, Asmti, Khwaza-Hafiz, Kabul and the
settlements numbered 122, 583, 579, 909,
139, 160, 791,
515, 447, 197, 31, 6, 136 and 30 in Ball's Gazetteer. In Samangan province, Tepe
Shahidan is a village mound site
which provides valuable information about the daily life of the peasant farmers
who were the backbone of the Kushana economy. Samangan has a cluster of
settlement sites numbered 1101, 1063, 289, 1061, 1212, 1181, 65 and 1034.
Shahr-i- Banu is another Kushana site in
this area. Thus the process of urbanization that was initiated by the
Graeco-Bactrians in north Afghanistan, continued at a greater pace during the
Kushana times.
Hadda, in Ningrahar
province, near Jalalabad is one of the richest archaeological sites of the
Kushana period, in terms of Buddhist art. It has an extensive area of stupas,
monasteries and caves, covering about 15 square kilometre. The Hadda complex
contains famous sites such as Tepe Shotur, Tepe Kafiriha, Tepe Kalan, Tepe
Zargaran, Bagh Gai, Gar Nau, etc. Explored between 1923 to 1928 and 1930-33 by
the French Archaeological Mission in Afghanistan, more than 1000 stupas were
identified along with Gandharan stucco sculptures in large quantity, limestone
and schist bas-reliefs and Buddhist wall
paintings.
At
and around Tepe Kalan as many as 23000 limestone and stucco heads were recovered
including Buddhas,Boddhisattvas, demons, donors, monks, helmeted soldiers and
men of different groups. The excavation of Tepe Shotur by the Afghan Department of Archaeology
between 1965 to 1973 and afterwards, revealed a Buddhist stupa- onastery
complex with chapels, decorative votive stupas, clay statuary, bas-reliefs,
wall paintings, large number of coins, many gold, silver and steatite reliquaries, etc. A unique 'fish
porch' (2.40 m 2.20 metre) in stucco, dated to the 2nd or 3rd century A.D. elaborately depicts the
conversion of a snake-king to Buddhism along with many real and imaginary
seacreatures.
A
fire-temple of the Kushana period has also been reported from Hadda. Several
short Kharoshthi inscriptions were discovered from the area including the one
on a jar, dated to year 28 and recording the dedication of a Bodhisattva relic,
with most of the merit going to an unnamed king.
It must be pointed out that there is so far no
evidence of occupation before the Kushana period suggesting that Hadda was a
creation of the Great Kushanas, which continued to be occupied in the
Sassanian period as well.
It lay on the route joining India with the
Silk Road at Balkh. The presence of purely Gandharan
stucco
sculptures along with unbaked clay sculptures in the same sanctuary, is an
interesting aspect that can shed light on the processes of the development of
the Bactrian art style into Gandhara style. The artistic wealth and presence of
articles of gold, silver, precious stones along with coins and inscriptions
suggest that Hadda had developed into a town-city in the Kushana period.
Kabul-Jalalabad-Ghazni region appear to have
witnessed the process of urbanization on a vigorous scale during the Kushana
period. With a few exceptions, the Kushanas were responsible for the
establishment of settlement sites for
the first time in this south eastern area of Afghanistan.
Hadda in
Ningrahar province appears to have been an important nuclear centre around
which many village-towns came up. It was surrounded by settlements which all
appear to be stupa-monastery complexes, like Ghunda Chasma,
Chakhil-i-Ghundi, Barabad, Kuhna Deh, Qala-i-Shahi, Deh-iRahman, Shalatak,
Bimaran, Filkhana and Ahin Posh Tepe.
The stupa at Ghunda
Chasma stands on two platforms, the first 1.07 metre high and c. 25
Metre square,
the second c. 22 metre square with 10 pilasters on each side. It has a stairway
on the north side and a monastery to the south. It is a single culture site which
is dated to the Kushana
period on
stylistic grounds.
Chakhil-i-Ghundi,
situated around 1.5 kilometre northeast of Hadda complex, is a stupa-monastery complex with an
associated habitation area on a nearby small hill. Stucco statuary and reliefs and
elaborate facades on the votive stupas have been reported from this site. It
was occupied for the first time during the Kushana period and continued till
the Kushano-Sassanian period. Barabad is also a stupa-monastery complex of 1st -2nd century
A.D.,with a frieze of pilasters, blind arches, a steatite reliquary and series
of caves nearby. Kuhna Deh contains a small, perfect stupa, monastery,
aquaducts and number of artificial caves that are dated to the Kushana period. Filkhana
has
an artificial cave complex of 32 caves, two stupas and a gold and silver
reliquary which are architecturally and stylistically dated to the Kushana
period. Sultanpur is another Kushana
site with a stupa having a pyramid shaped reliquary. The
Ahin Posh stupa has a large stupa-monastery complex which yielded rich
numismatic records including three Roman aurei each of Domitian, Trajan and
Sabina, and seventeen Kushana gold coins (10 of Wema Kadphises, 6 of Kanishka
and 1 of Huvishka). On account of these gold coins and the
largeness of the stupa-monastery complex, we can infer that Ahin Posh was an
important village-town site in the Kushana period. All the above mentioned
sites are in Ningrahar province and appear to have been
a
part of the Hadda urban complex.
Deh-i-Rahman
with three stupas and Shalatak
with Kushana ceramics, both in Laghaman
province are other Kushana settlements around Hadda. Bimaran
in Laghman province, is a rich Kushana
site, with four major stupas, Kharoshthi inscriptions, coins, gold jewellery,
gold reliquary inset with rubies and a complex of six artificial caves. The
representations on the reliquary include two sets of three figures – a standing
Buddha flanked by the gods Indra and Brahma. This is believed to be one of the
earliest examples of the Buddha image.
Qala-i-Shahi
in
Kunar province, with a stupa-monastery complex also appear to be a part of the
Hadda complex. The Kyoto University Archaeological Mission excavated sites like
Basawal caves and Lalma near Jalalabad that yielded antiquities of Kushana
period. It is interesting to note that
all these sites were connected with the Buddhist ideology in Kushana period which
seems to have played an important role in the development of these urban
complexes. Nagara identified with Jalalabad also finds mention in a number of inscriptions
including two Bharhut inscriptions, the Mathura lion capital pillar inscription
of Mahakshatrapa Rajula and in the inscription found at Jaulian near Taxila,
which mentions the gift of the monk Dharmamitra.
Thus
Jalalabad/Hadda seems to have been important centres of Sarvastivada Buddhism
in the Kushana period. According to Hou-Han-Shu,
the Yueh Chi conqueror Ch'iu-Chiu-Chuen, identified with Kujula Kadphises,
occupied Kao-Fu or the Kabul area of Afghanistan. The discovery of
Hermaeus-Herakeles coins of Kujula Kadphises in this area attest to the
association of Kujula with Kabul, which was
the last stronghold of the Bactrian-Greeks and their ruler Hermaeus.
Kabul appears to
have been another urban settlement around which a cluster of village-town sites
developed.
Khwaja
Mussaffar having an artificial mound,
ceramically seems to be a Kushana settlement. Quishlaq-i-Sufla with a small
ruined fort similar to a Shaka fort and a rectangular building was a Kushana
village-town site. Yakhdara has two stupas and associated monastery
enclosures which can be architecturally assigned to the Kushana period and
later.
Kammari
also appears to be a Kushana site ceramically
and has yielded remains of two stupas one of which is approx. 17 metre high and
a gold medal of Kadphises. Minar-i-Chakri again has Kushana ceramic
tradition, a monastery complex and a pillar. Shiwaki seems to be an important town of Kushana
period as it has yielded Kushana gold coins and a Roman coin of Trajan. Its
stupa-monastery complex covers a wide area. The stupa has a well-preserved
frieze of alternating pilasters and blind arches and Kut-i-Sitara
yielded a steatite base with a Kharoshthi inscription, apart from coins.
Baiktut also appears to be Kushana
settlements with Buddhist complexes. Thus, Buddhist ideology, state power and
trade seems to have given an impetus to habitational expansion and urbanization
in this area.
At Wardak, on the Kabul-Ghazni road, a large
fortified urban site of the Kushana period has been reported. The town site was
laid in accordance with a regular grid street plan and has an inner and outer
enclosures. There is only one entrance and the outer enclosure is strengthened
by round towers at regular interval and a ditch on two sides. Outside the walled
city, remains of five or six stupas, a fortified monastery complex, a dam and a
canal system are noticed.
The canal must have supplied water to the
settlement. One of the stupa contained several Kushana coins, metal bases and a
steatite base with a Kharoshthi inscription dated to the year 51, during the
reign of Kushana emperor Huvishka.
The Kushana pottery collected from this site
has been compared with that of Begram-II by Fussman. Although the plan of the
site resembles Bactrian style, it was definitely a Kushana site which must have
developed as an important Kushana town lying on the Kandahar-Kapisa trade
route.
Tepe Yemshi,
in the Shibarghan province, is a city-mound site with a round plan. The
excavations conducted by the joint Afghan-Soviet Mission established continuous
occupation from the Bactrian times till the Sassanian period when it was
destroyed. The site yielded evidence of massive circular fortifications along
with numerous antiquities such as terracottas, human and animal figurines, painted and stamped
pottery, incised stone plates, drainage
pipes, alabaster spindle whorls, limestone coloured bases and silver
altars.Tepe Yemshi seems to be the living area of the Kushanas whose
burial ground is reported from the
nearby site of Tillya Tepe.
The material difference in the graves of
Tillya Tepe shows social and economic differentiation with the division of
society into rich and common classes.
Excavations at Shrhr-i-Kona in Kandahar by the British Mission
in 1975, revealed continuous cultural sequence from the protohistoric period of
which the Kushana occupation appears to be the most extensive, apart from the
'late Islamic occupation'. There is some evidence of round arch from the
Kushana phase along with bricks of 45 45 8 centimetre.
The
cave settlements of Shamshir Ghar and Aq Kupruk provide
evidence of the nomadic population of Afghanistan which still have symbiotic
relations with the sedentary farmers.
The
most striking Buddhist remains of Afghanistan were the two colossal images of
Buddha from Bamiyan, 55 metre and 38 metre high, carved in deep
niches. The site, lying on the silk route, about 250 kilometrenorthwest of
Kabul offered a natural camping place to the merchandize-ladencaravans and
encouraged Buddhist devotees to carve out shrines and images. With two towering
images of Buddha and thousands of rock-cutshrines in vicinity, Bamiyan seems to
have developed into a vast monastic establishment during the later Kushana
period.
Several
rock-cut caves carved in the three walls of a gorge, have been noticed at the
site of Homay Qala.
These are irregularly situated caves at different levels, with a corridor
running along all the three walls. The complex has been identified as a
Buddhist cave monastery consisting of monastic cells with parabolic
"vault" and rectangular or arched entrance and small chapels connected
by corridors and stairways. The caves of Fil-Khana also have a similar plan where several
cells, at the same level, connected by a corridor were carved out
in rock. K. Nishikawa and S. Mizuno who studied the FilKhana caves have dated
this complex to the period of the 'Great Kushans' on The basis of a Kharoshthi
inscription discovered in cave no. 28.
They concluded that Fil-Khana caves were one
of the earliest Buddhist caves in Afghanistan. Several other rock-cut
monasteries have been reported from Afghanistan of which the caves of Haibak are very
imposing.
The Hazar Sum urban nucleus
of 200 plus multiroom-multistoreyed rock cave-dwellings have also been dated to
the Kushana period. We can thus gauge a
marked increase in the number of settlement sites, both urban and rural, during
the Kushana period, which went up from 79 in Graeco-Bactrian to 167 in the
Kushana period. Of the Kushana sites only
33 are old sites of the Graeco-Bactrian and Shaka period which continued
to be occupied, while the remaining 134 are new settlements that developed in the
Kushana period itself.
Gandhara was a pivotal region in the Kushana
empire and Pushkalavati,
the traditional metropolis of Gandhara, was one of the earliest Kushana cities
in Pakistan. Identified with modern Charsada, 17 miles northeast of Peshawar on the
east bank of Swat river, this ancient city stood on two important trade routes,
viz. the one running from Bactria to Barygaza and the other, the great
northwest-southeast route which terminated at Patliputra. Pushkalavati stood at
the very gate to India from the northwest. Of the several mounds, some were
excavated in 1902-03. Some Kushana coins were revealed at Mir Ziyarat, of which one belonged to Wema
Kadphises and three to Kanishka.
Other,
the great northwest-southeast route which terminated at Patliputra. Trial
excavations at the highest mound Bala
Hisar (60-70 feet high) were conducted in 1903
and later it was excavated by Mortimer Wheelerin 1958. Apart from a hoard of 57
copper coins of the later Kushana
rulers,four inscribed jars, three of which bear Kharoshthi inscriptions in Kushana characters, suggest Kushana
occupation of this city. A copper coin belonging to one of Kadphises was
discovered at Palatu Dheri.
Mortimer Wheeler's excavation, revealed
intensive occupation of Bala Hisar from the 6 century to
2nd or 1st century B.C. after which reduced occupation
continued till the 'Muslim period'.
The main habitational area of Charsada was
shifted to a nearby site Shaikhan Dheri
during the Kushana period which represents the rebuilding of the city of
Pushkalavati under the Kushanas. The stratigraphy of Shaikhan Dheri runs from the middle of the 2nd century B.C. to the close of the 2nd
or the middle of 3rd century A.D. The excavations at the 1045 feet
high mound above sea level in 1963-64 by A.H. Dani brought to light three occupational
layers belonging to the Kushana (Phase A), Scytho-Parthian (Phase B) and Greek
times (Phase C) which are further subdivided into three periods on the basis of
coins.
The Kushana phase is divided into Period I – late
Kushana, belonging to the time of Vasudeva; Period II – middle Kushana to the
time of Kanishka and Huvishka and Period III – early Kushana marked by the
coins of Soter Megas, Wema Kadphises and Kujula Kadphises. As many as 475 coins
were found in the Kushana layers (Phase A) of which only 291 could be
identified, including 219 Kushana coins. These include 5 coins of Kujula
Kadphises, 38 of Soter Megas, 60 of Wema Kadphises, 77 of Kanishka, 31 of
Huvishka and 8 of Vasudeva. One of the gold coins of Wema
Kadphises
(Shiva with bull type) has a hole and was used as a button.
This grid-patterned city was founded by
Menander and it declined after the Kushanas. Several structures of burnt bricks,
drains, refuge pits and cess pools were exposed during the excavation, which
mostly belong to the Kushana period. The city plan, of which three parallel
streets and a side street crossing at a right angle have been excavated,
belongs to the Kushana period. On the street we notice refuge pits of several
shapes, full of ashes, bones and charcoal. All drains were uncovered and built
of stone except one which was built of burnt bricks. In the excavation a
bathing place, a fire place and a drain were also discovered from the Kushana
phase.
Other antiquities from the Kushana layers
include red ware and grey ware, lamps, weights, terracotta figurines,
sculptural pieces, beads of semi-precious stones, iron objects, antimony rods,
various items of toilets, etc. Kushana level yielded more than three-fourth of
the total number of terracotta beads.
The excavations at Shaikhan Dheri also brought
to light 37 Kharoshthi inscriptions in Prakrit language, almost all belonging
to the Kushana phase. All these inscriptions are private records of religious
nature. A.H. Dani suggests the existence
of another important Kushana city at Rajar (Rajagadha) near Charsada.
On the basis of Chinese sources, it is
generally believed that Purushapura
(modern Peshawar) was the capital of the Kushanas. According to Fa-hsien,
Purushapur was famous for the splendid stupa built by Kanishka and Buddha's alm
bowl which was brought by Kanishka from Pataliputra.
Hiuen Tsang also refers to the
construction of a grand stupa, containing the relics of Buddha and the tower of
the Patra of Buddha at Purushapur.
Two
large mounds, known as Shah-ji-ki-dheri near
the Peshawar city have been identified with Kanishka's stupa and a monastery. The
core or the dome of this gigantic stupa rested on a 180 square feet plinth which
had on each side a 43 feet deep central projection, itself endowed with
a 7
feet deep central projection. The plinth also had four circular towers at four corners.
The façade of the plinth was covered both with bricks and roughly dressed stone
blocks and had stucco figures of the Buddha between corinthian pilasters. The
core of the stupa was made of walls which radiated from the centre Purushapur.
The centre of the stupa below ground level
yielded an inscribed cylindrical casket and its lid of copper alloy (7.75 inch
high and 5 inch in diameter). It has the figure of a seated Buddha on the
centre of the lid and two figures of Brahma and Indra with folded hands standing
on the left
and
the right side respectively.
The casket also displays the standing figure of
a king in Central Asian dress, most probably Kanishka, flanked by divine figures
of sun god and moon god. The Kharoshthi inscription on the reliquary records the
religious gift "in Kanishka's Vihara in Mahasena's Samgharama, in the
reign of the great king Kanishka"
'About one thousand coins of Kadphises,
Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva' have been discovered in Peshawar.
The Kyoto University Archaeological Mission
carried out several excavations at sites of the Kushana period in Pakistan,
such as Chanaka Dheri, Mekhasanda and Threli near Peshawar. The excavation at Chanaka Dheri, situated about 70 kilometre
east-northeast of Peshawar, near
Shahbazgarhi, revealed two periods. While Period I is a small village of
a later date, Period II is a sort of a
palace site of the Kushana period, composed of four buildings of which three
were excavated.
The
central building (57 35 metre) has several rooms and corridors erected
on a massive stone underground basement. One large room still has six round
bases (4 metre in diameter) of stone blocks in two rows. This building had an
attached staircase on the west wall of this large room. The walls and floors
were originally coated with plaster and the underground stone masonry reaches a
depth of 5 metre.
The
north building (72 47 metre) was a square court, paved with slabs
and enclosed by a higher terrace with small rooms on every side. On the
northwest building there remained only a square basement (36 19m.), the upper part of which was completely
destroyed. Coins of Wema Kadphises, Kanishka and Huvishka were found alongside
gold coins of post-Kidarite rulers. Typical Kushana pottery such as spouted
jars, knobbed lids, lamps, glass bangles, etc. were also discovered.
The site of Mekhasanda on the slope of the mountain, east
of Chanaka-Dheri was first excavated by A. Foucher.
The Kyoto University Archaeological Mission
excavated many buildings of stone on several ridges
including
a main stupa in the centre of a court, standing on the main ridge and many
votive stupas around it. The two storeyed square base of the main stupa has
been preserved and some stucco figurines of Buddha along the edge of this
stupa-court in low enclosure walls and pilasters on the side walls can be
observed.
To the south of the courtyard is an entrance
approached by a flight of stone stairs. Several small shrines were noticed
along the edges of the stairway and an assembly hall and a kitchen room to the
east. This site yielded a great number of Buddhist sculptures, stucco
figurines, pottery, iron objects and coins of Vasudeva, later Kushana coins of
Vasudeva type, etc.
On
the other ridges several rooms of viharas were unearthed. The Threli Buddhist temple is in a mountain valley,
14 kilometre north of Mardan. More than one hundred stone building remains can
be noticed on the northern slope of this valley of which three groups were
excavated by the
Kyoto
University Archaeological Mission. One group, located on the top of one of the
ridges has a stupa-court, viharas and a square hall with three big
stupas
adjacent to one another in the centre.
The second group, near the bottom of this
valley consists of three terraces adding to an eastern wing, with a stupa court
on the uppermost terrace. The rear part of this stupa court is large and has a
main stupa in the centre and several votive stupas around it. The front part of
it is narrow with small stupas and shrines. On the middle terrace, there stood
a pillared veranda while the lowest terrace was a flat plane with no buildings.
The third groups of buildings were mostly
viharas. About three thousand pieces of stone Buddhist sculptures and building fragments,
one thousand stucco figurines, pottery, iron objects and coins
including
copper coins of Huvishka (from the stupa-court) were recovered from this site.
In
the Peshawar valley, a number of other stupa sites were also excavated. Shahri Bahlol, about 7 miles to the north of
Mardan was excavated by D.B. Spooner in 1906-07. It is an ancient town site
with a stupacum-monastery, where the sculptural finds are singularly rich and
numerous.
Apart
from several hundreds of large sized stucco Buddhas and Bodhisattvas and
reliefs of fascinating quality, the excavations at Shahri Bahlol yielded one copper
coin of Soter Megas (Bust and Horseman type), one silver Sassanian coin and a
unique silver coin of the Kidara Kushanas.
The excavation also brought to light many
statues of doners in Kushana type tunic and a portrait of
the
so-called Kushana king, probably Huvishka.
Takht-i-Bahi,
again in the Peshawar district and excavated by Spooner in 1907-08, revealed a
complete site plan with a monastery and stupa courtyards. A large number of
Buddha, Bodhisattvas and miscellaneous Buddhist reliefs were found at the site.
The stupa and monastery site of Jamalgarhi also yielded Buddhist antiquities
in overwhelming number. Early excavations in the Peshawar region revealed the
base of a large stupa at Ghaz Dheri
along with a large number of Gandhara sculptures.
In the same Mardan tehsil in Peshawar
district, a hoard of five hundred and thirty three copper coins of the Kushanas
was 'discovered in a mound between Turbandi and Nandua'.
The Kurram copper casket inscription dated in
Kanishka's year 20 was also found near Peshawar.
In the Potwar Plateau, 20 miles to the south
east of Rawalpindi, there is a huge Buddhist complex of not less than fifteen
isolated stupas and fourteen attached monasteries, mostly on the sandstone
ridges of Manikyala.
The
Manikyala tope
was first excavated in 1830 by General Ventura, an army officer in the service
of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, followed by General Court in 1834 and then
investigated by Alexander Cunningham in 1863-64. These extensive remains cover
an area of about six square miles. The Manikyala tope No. 1 is a 92 feet high
gigantic stupa that yielded a reliquary containing gold and copper coins of
Kanishka and Huvishka, mixed with one coin of Yashovarman of Kanauj.
With these coins were found two Kharoshthi inscriptions,
one on the lid of the cylindrical bronze casket and other on a plain silver
disc. The main body of the stupa is a solid hemisphere of 127 feet,
9
inches in diameter. The upper and lower plinths are decorated with corinthian
pilasters. At the depth of 73 feet, a small box of gold was discovered, lying
inside a copper box containing one gold and five copper coins of the Kushana
rulers Kanishka and Huvishka.
Cunningham visited Manikyala thrice during the
years 1863, 1872 and 1878. In the Manikyala tope
no.
2, three cylindrical caskets of copper, silver and gold were discovered by General
Court, placed one inside the other, each containing several coins of the same
metal. The whole was enclosed in a stone niche which was covered by a large
inscribed slate with Kharoshthi inscription. The four gold coins in the gold
box belong to Kanishka, the seven silver coins are all Roman denarii of the
last years of the republic ( 1st
AD) and the eight copper coins belong to Kujula Kadphises, Wema Kadphises and Kanishka. On
the authority of these coins, Cunningham dated this tope to the reign of
Kanishka.
The Manikyala stone inscription records the
establishment of several relics of lord Buddha in the year 18 of Kanishka's reign
by his General Lala. The name of Burita, an architect who repaired the edifice
is also mentioned. Another outstanding
find of Cunningham was a model stupa of stone (8½ inches high and 4½ inches in
diameter) at the base, bearing a striking resemblance to the great stupa of
Manikyala, that yielded a copper coin of Kujula Kadphises. There is copious evidence of the presence of
Kushanas in different parts of the Peshawar valley and Potwar plateau in the
form of Kushana coins, inscriptions and Buddhist ruins yielding sculptures,
stone reliefs, stucco heads and bronzes in enormous numbers. The Zeda
inscription of 'Kaisara Kanishka' dated
in the year 41 was found near Attock and the Sui Vihara copper plate
inscription dated in the year 11 was found near Und, the Ara stone inscription of Kanishka dated in the year 11 was discovered
near Bahawalpur in southern part of West
Punjab. Cunningham collected a few coins "of Kujula Kadphises, twice as
many as of Wema Kadphises and nearly equal number of Kanishka, Huvishka,
Vasudeva and the nameless king (Soter Megas)" from the "Yusufzai
country".
The excavation in Swat by the Italian
Archaeological Mission (ISMEO) revealed Kushana coins from Mingora and Udegram
apart from specimens of Gandhara art. The ISMEO published its finds in 1958, related
to the urban settlements in Gogdara, Udigram 'Bazar' and Udigram castle.
At Gogdara, a spacious
courtyard with a basin of water, cylindrical column foundations, wells, canals,
pavements, benches and pits were excavated. The adjacent of Kanishka sites of Butkara-I and Barama, facing one
another on the bank of Jambil river, revealed huge constructions, blocks of
buildings separated by streets and a large defensive wall with a square ground
plan at Barama and
construction semblance
in the settlement of Butkara-I.
Several Buddhist sanctuaries, rock carvings
and an image of Avalokiteshwar were noticed along the route going up the Jambil
valley and reaching the Gokand pass which connects it to Buner and Indus
region.
The excavation of 1990-91 by the Italian
Archaeological Mission at the historic settlement of Bir-Kot-Ghwandai in Swat
revealed occupation from Indo-Greek period to the Kushano-Sassanian times. The
urban architecture from periods 6, 7 and 8 of the structural sequence is
tentatively dated between 3 rd and 5th century A.D. A small Buddhist sacred area grew
up inside the town, similar to the
sacred monument of Sirkap at Taxila, with a stupa and a courtyard. The stupa
with a moulded base is square in plan with walls decorated on each side by two
pilasters. Three viharas were discovered towards the northern wall of the
courtyard. The excavations also yielded coins
of Azes and an
unidentified Saka king.
Another Buddhist site in the Swat region is
Marjanai in Kabal tehsil that yielded a
stupa, a votive stupa and three coins, one of Kanishka, another of later
Kushana period and a KushanoSassanian
coin. Numerous
panels with seated Buddha and standing Bodhisattvas were also revealed during
the excavations.
In the Swat region the excavation at Andandheri
,
about 4 miles north of Chakdara revealed three periods of occupation (Period I,
II and III), a main stupa, fourteen votive stupas and a monastic area built of
diaper stone masonry. The earliest coins found at the monastic area of the site
are those of
Wema Kadphises
and Soter Megas from Period I. From Period II a coin hoard of 12 copper coins
of Kanishka-III and Vasudeva-II was found. The Buddhist site of Chatpat
,
yielded a Kharoshthi inscription showing the earliest phase of Kushana
writing, stupas and a number of square votive stupas, during excavation. The
floor of the main stupa is dated to the early Kushan period.
Excavation at Damkot in the Swat region revealed four
periods of occupation from the first half of the first millenium B.C. onwards.
Period III, yielded one coin of Wema Kadphises, seven coins of Kanishka and
five coins of Vasudeva-II. This was a period of intensive occupation,
suggestive of an
opulent
community. The associated structures of Period III show diaper masonry.
The ancient city of Taxila in Rawalpindi
district of Pakistan lay on the busy highway which tapped the trans-Asiatic
'silk routes', i.e. the route running from Pataliputra to Taxila, to western
Asia and the route linking it up to Central Asia via Kashmir.
Taxila, indeed is one of the most-explored
ancient sites of the Indian subcontinent. Several years of excavations have
brought to light the remains of an extensive city with three ancient
settlements, namely, the Bhir mound (c. 500 B.C. – Mauryan period), Sirkap (c. 200 B.C. –
Indo Greek city) and Sirsukh (Kushana city). A large number
of Buddhist stupas and monasteries were also excavated. The earliest settlement
of Bhir mound is a haphazard town with narrow streets and
irregularly built houses.
Sirkap, the second city
of Taxila was built by Bactrian Greeks in the beginning to the 2nd century B.C., in accordance with the
chess-board plan with regularly aligned blocks of buildings and streets cutting
one-another at right angles. It had a suburb and a fortification wall of rubble
masonry with projecting bastians at irregular intervals. The excavations at Sirkap by John
Marshall (1913-34) and A. Ghosh (1944-45)
revealed structural remains as well as other
antiquities which prove Kushana conquest over the city. A total number of seven
occupational layers were revealed of which stratum I, i.e. the latest stratum
that yielded a very large number of Kushana coins and red ware, is and forty
one Kushana coins retrieved by Marshall two thousand five hundred and twenty
two copper coins and four silver coins belong to Kujula Kadphises, twelve to
Soter Megas, thirty seven are issues of Wema Kadphises, thirty nine of
Kanishka, four of Huvishka, twenty seven of Vasudeva and only three copper
coins belong to the later Kushana rulers.
A Ghosh's excavation also yielded one coin
each of Kujula Kadphises and Huvishka from Sirkap. This numismatic
testimony clearly demonstrates Kushana hold over Sirkap during its last
phase, in the reign of Kujula Kadphises. Thereafter the Kushana power shifted
to a new city site – Sirsukh, although Sirkap seems to have
remained in partial occupation even after the transfer of the city site.
Sirsukh, the third city
of Taxila, was situated to the north-east of the Lundi stream. This city was
established by the Kushanas in the traditional manner after the contemporary
Central Asian cities. Its plan is roughly a parallelogram with a perimeter of
about 3 miles. Like Sirkap , the city of Sirsukh was defended
by a massive stone wall with diaper masonry and strengthened on the outside by
semi-circular bastions. It also possessed a suburb on its western side and was
defended by an earthen work called Tredi Ghar.
Marshall's excavation at Sirsukh revealed the
remains of a large building, pottery, stone and metal objects, finger rings,
beads of semi precious stones and forty copper coins. Of these coins, four
belong to Kujula Kadphises, three to Wema Kadphises, twelve to Kanishka, one to
Huvishka,
eleven to
Vasudeva and six to later Kushana rulers. Apart from these three cities, Kushana coins
and antiquities have also been discovered from a large number of Buddhist
stupas and monasteries at Taxila. They are the Dharma-rajika
stupa, the Samgharama at Kalawan, the stupa-cum-monasteries
complex of Giri, the stupas of Kunala and Ghai, the Samgharamas
of Bhamala, the stupas and monasteries at Lalchak,
Pippala, Mohra, Moradu, Jaulian, Badalpur and Bhallar and the Ionic
temple at Jandial. Most of these religious buildings were established
after the founding
of the Kushana
city of Sirsukh.
The excavations at various sites in
Taxila yielded in total two thousand five hundred and twenty six copper coins
and four silver coins of Kujula Kadphises, sixty-four copper coins of Wema Kadphises,
one hundred and one coins of Soter Megas, one hundred and fifty seven copper
coins of Kanishka, seventy-three of Huvishka, one thousand, nine hundred and
four copper coins of Vasudeva-I, thirty copper coins of later Kushana rulers,
four gold, one silver and twenty-three electron pieces of the
Kidara-Kushanas
and three hundred Sassanian coins.
The most remarkable find from the great stupa
complex of Dharmarajika was that of a reliquary in
one of the
side-chapels, containing a silver scroll with a Kharoshthi inscription dedicated
to a Kushana king by a Bactrian, Urasaka in the year 136.
The best example of stucco ornamentation in
this region is provided by the stupa and monastery at Jaulian, which in
all probability was constructed in the Kushana period. It also yielded coins of
Soter Megas, Kujula Kadphises, Kanishka, Huvishka, Vasudeva and later Kushanas.
Several Kushana coins and inscriptions have
also been discovered from various other parts of Pakistan. These include coins
of Kanishka from Idak-Spinwan and Shertulla plain, one copper
coin of Kanishka from Sanghao cave, several coins from Balambat settlement
site, copper coinsof Kanishka and other Kushana rulers from Ark-Ghundai and a coin of
Soter Megas from a Tulumba in Multan.
Six
gold coins of Kanishka and Vasudeva were
collected from Shakarkot in Sahpur district and two gold coins of "the
little Yueh-Chih" from a mound near Machrata in Sheikhpur district. The
Tochi valley inscriptions in Arabic, Bactrian and Sanskrit language refer to
the year 38 and resemble the inscription of Kanishka from Surkh Kotal. Three
rock boulders at Tor-Derai in Loralai district bear lengthy inscriptions in
Kharoshthi script, depicting a bold, stylized form of Kushana writing. The top of the hillock of Tor Derai is occupied by the ruins of a Buddhist
stupa, excavated by Aurel Stein in 1927, who placed the remains in the
beginning of the 2nd century A.D. to Kushana period.
As we can
discern from the above discussion, the Kushana period was marked by the spread
of urbanization and monetization in Pakistan. According to A.H. Dani, "The
urban centres increased to a very large extent during the Kushan period."
In the main valley of Peshawar numerous cities
came up to the north of Kabul river, along the old route that came from Taxila
and across the Indus to Hund or Salature, onward to Pushkalavati at the
confluence of the Swat and Kabul rivers. "If the city mounds that exist
today on these routes
are counted, it
is surprising to note that urbanization even in modern Pakistan has not reached
that stage in the Peshawar region."
Dani maintains that this urbanization in the Kushana period was based
both on industrial development and on trade entrepots. The spread of Buddhist
ideology and political unity must have
added fillip to this process leading to general prosperity and rise of Gandhara
art. In words of Dani "The Kushana period was a Golden Age in the ancient
history of Pakistan."
In Jammu &
Kashmir:
The Hou Han
Shu (Annals of the late Han Dynasty) records the conquest of Chi-pin, i.e.
a portion of northwestern India including Kashmir, by Kujula
Kadphises. The Kharoshthi inscription of Maharaja Uvima Kavthisa(Wema
Kadphises) of the year 187 of the old Shaka era of 170 B.C. (A.D. 17), discovered
near the Khalatse bridge.
On the Indus suggests that around the first
century, Ladakh was a part of the Kushana empire. According to Hiuen Tsang, the
fourth Buddhist council was held under the patronage of Kanishka
at Kundalavan
Vihara in Kashmir. The first book of Kalhana's Rajatarangini gives
the names of the 'Princes of Turushka' who were 'powerful sovereigns' and
faithful patrons of Buddhism, as Hushka (Huvishka), Jushka (Vasishka) and Kanishka (Kanishka I or
II), each of whom founded a new city bearing his own name.
These cities are Hushkapura, identified as Ushkar, two miles to the
south-east of Baramula pass; Jushkapura, i.e. Zukur, four miles to
the north of Srinagar and Kanishkapursa, i.e. Kanispur
between Baramula and Srinagar. Jushka was also the founder of Jayasvamipura which is yet unidentified.
Another settlement mentioned in Rajatarangini is Sushkaletra
identified
with Hukhalitor in Dunts Pargana, by Auriel Stein. Sushkaletra seems to have
been a place of importance during Kushana rule as Hushka, Jushka and Kanishka
are said to have constructed monasteries, caityas, etc., here. Thus both
literary and epigraphic evidence strongly suggest Kushana rule over the Kashmir
valley, right from the early phase of the Kushana empire.
Archaeological
explorations show that much of the occupation in the state of Jammu
and Kashmir goes back to the beginning of the Christian century, marked
by the Kushana rule. Kashmir witnessed considerable prosperity under the
Kushanas from the 1st to the 3rd century A.D. because
the trade route
to Central Asia passed through Hunza and Gilgit that were under Kushana
dominion.
Since the reign of Kushanas, Buddhism rose to
its height in Kashmir and Kashmir became a leading centre of Sarvastivada school
probably due to patronage of Kushana kings. Although very few sites
have been
scientifically excavated in this region, they do give us a fair idea of Kushana
rule in Jammu and Kashmir. The three Kushana towns mentioned in Rajatarangini
were identified by Cunningham.
He observed at Kanispur, a Sarai named Kampur
Sarai was a corrupt name of Kanishkapur. The
excavation at Kanispur near Baramula
was carried out by the Srinagar Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India in
1998-99 under the direction of B.R. Mani. It yielded five cultural periods of
occupation. Period I and Period II areaceramic and ceramic neolithic periods
respectively. The site was abandoned after the neolithic period and was
reoccupied in the Kushana period, i.e. Period III dated to c. 1 st to 4th century A.D. Habitational deposit of the thickness
of nearly 2.50 metre of Kushana period was marked, square A1, Q d2 at KNP-3 where Kushana
habitational remains were overlying the natural soil. In layers 5
to 10 which belong to Period-III, the main township of Kanishkapura has been
excavated. Large scale building activity in the form of structures of various
types were noticed during Period-III. Parts of a huge structure were traced
upto a length of 22 metre and breadth of 17 metre, constructed of diaper pebble
walls with lime brick floor. A pavement attached with these walls in the inner
side of the structure was also noticed.
Evidence of decorated stucco work was found in
the form of a few pieces with floral designs and red paint on a chunk of lime
plaster. Roof tiles with circular holes for iron nails suggest wooden
super-structure. On the slopes of KNP-2, a damaged
pavement of decorated terracotta tiles with the pattern of a large disc having
several concentric circles was exposed.
Floral
decorations, medallions with dharma-chakra motif, Kharoshthi numerals and
Brahmi letters
were found on
these tiles. Red ware was the main ceramic industry with shapes of variety of
bowls, goblets, spouted pots, basins, dishes or pans with incised or stamped
decorations around the rim, lids, vases, and plates with central knob and
circular base, etc. A typical Kushana lamp with horizontally flat incurved rim
and a rare 8 centimetre high goblet of fine red ware are some important finds
of the Kushana period. Other antiquities include a copper coin probably of
Kanishka, silver pendant, terracotta figurines, pieces of blue glass bangles,
iron nails, arrow heads, etc.
Red ware continued in Period IV, i.e. Post
Kushana period and Period V, i.e. Kashmir dynastic period also but with a
change in the shapes.
Semthan (ancient
Chakradara) in district Anantnag was excavated by R.S. Bisht of the
Archaeological Survey of India for four seasons from 1976-79 and 1980-81, which
revealed a four-fold cultural sequence.
A terracotta
seal depicting a Roman deity and
beautiful terracottas of the Gandhara school clearly betraying a lingering
classical influence are some of the other important finds of Period III. Period
IV atmSemthan represents the Gupta age.
During the
excavation at Ushkar, a stone block inscribed with the
word Heskaya in the Sarada characters of the medieval period was
discovered. The word has been taken to denote Heskapur or Huskapur, the ancient name of the town, which according
to Rajatarangini was founded by the Kushana King Hushka or Huvishka.
Some structures of Buddhist monuments, belonging to the Kushana period were
also exposed at Ushkar.
Remains of Buddhist art and architecture were
noticed in the form of a stupa and a monastery at Harwan, two miles
from the Shalimar gardens in the valley of Kashmir.
R.C. Kak excavated Harwan in the early
1920's when the terraced fields, thickly packed with potsherds were excavated. The site comprises of three terraces, with
lower terrace representing an important Buddhist
site of the Kushana period while an apsidal stupa or temple stands on the
highest terrace. The overall plan of Harwan closely takes after the fire temple
at Surkh Kotal (Afghanistan) where the temple is a terraced structure with a
courtyard surrounding the main temple located upon the highest level.
Both originally
had a stairway leading through the centre of each terrace. The masonry style at
Harwan underwent a systematic evolution. The earliest construction was in the
'pebble style', but the 'diaper pebble style' – dated to around 300 A.D.
replaced it and subsequently gave way to 'diaper rubble style' as seen in the
triple base of a medium sized stupa built in a rectangular courtyard and a set of rooms or chapels.
Decorated tiles were found associated with the
'diaper pebble style' on the pavements of the courtyard of the apsidal stupa
which was square in front and circular at back. The temple accommodation
consisted of a spacious rectangular ante-chamber with a circular sanctum
behind. The courtyard around the temple consisted of a 160' by 124' 6"
pavement of large moulded brick tiles, having various shapes, decorations and patterns, the favorite one
being a large disc consisting of several concentric circles with a central
piece. Each circle is composed of a series of arc-shaped tiles, each stamped
with a special motif, and each one of the tiles bears a number in Kharoshthi
script.
Harwan tiles, according to Percy Brown
"represent motifs suggestive of more than half a dozen alien civilizations
of the ancient world, besides others which are indigenous and local". It
is interesting to note that human figures on tiles have the striking peculiarity
of head shown in profile and the body facing front. Indo-Sassanian and Central
Asian elements, particularly those from Yarkand – Kashgar region have been
traced on these tiles.
Material related to Kushana period has been
found during explorations and excavations at some other early historical sites
of the Kashmir valley such as Pandrethan, Hutmura, Kutbal, Ahan, etc. Remains
of decorated terracotta tiles have been brought to light from Doni
Pather near Pahalgam, Hoinar in the Liddar
valley, Hutmur near Martand in the Anantnag, district, Ahan near Sumbal, Kutbal in Anantnag
district, Hatmora in the Kupwara district, Kralchuk near Ganderbal,
Parihaspura near Devar Yakhmanpura and Behama near Ganderbal
township.
The trial excavation of 1988 at Hutmur revealed
fantastic decorated tile pavements at three places. The largest excavated
pavement contains nine concentric circle of tiles numbered in Kharoshthi and
laid in a systematic plan. One representation depicts a man in a typical
Kushana dress. The excavation at Ahan revealed
terracotta tiles with dignified motifs. One tile portrays a human figure
holding, like the mighty Kushana Kings, a long spear in the left hand, foot
splayed outward in heavy riding boots, wearing a long top coat – hallmarks of
Kushana dress, clearly
pointing
towards the authors of the tile.
Excavations
at Guru Baba-Ka-Tibba in
Jammu district revealed 6 metre of habitational deposit with sixteen layers
belonging to four cultural periods namely grey ware, early historical, Kushana and
medieval period respectively.
Of this Period III, i.e. the Kushana period
yielded mud brick walls, terracotta beads, shell bangles, copper, ivory and
bone objects, apart from other antiquities. The
site of Ambaran, again
in Akhnur region of Jammu district, excavated under the direction of B.R. Mani
during 1999-2001, yielded a
Buddhist
monastic establishment of Kushana period.
The four-fold cultural sequence represent
pre-Kushana, Kushana, post Kushana or Gupta and
Post-Gupta
period respectively. No structural remains of Period I (pre Kushana) were
found. During the excavation of Period II, a main stupa (6 6metre base), another large stupa (10 10 metre square base), several votive stupas,
walls of a monastery and another long structure probably a platform attached
with the stupa were exposed. All the burnt brick masonry was constructed with
brick of 36 to 38 24 6 to 7 centimetre.
A rectangular brick-paved platform was found
associated with the stupa on its eastern side
over which some lamps were discovered. According to B.R. Mani, the construction
plan of this Buddhist establishment is similar to the Taxila stupas of
Dharmarajika, Kalwan and Jandial.
The main stupa yielded a heavily encrusted
copper casket with thirty circular thin sheets of gold, two circular rimmed
thin sheets of silver, hundred and fifty micro beads of pearl, twelve cylindrical
coral beads, two metallic micro-beads, an oval shaped silver casket, a circular
gold casket, four full and six broken circular thin sheets of gold, three
encrusted copper coins, two of which are possibly Kushana issues and one bead of amethyst.
The site also yielded Buddhist terracotta
heads with close resemblance with terracotta heads of Gandhara art and twelve copper
coins of which eight belong to the Kushana rulers, Soter Megas, Kanishka and
Huvishka.
Kushana red ware in typical shapes such as
bowls, basins, vases, sprinklers, lamps, spouted pots and ink-pot type lids,
were also collected from Period II. As discussed in the previous chapter, a
huge concentration of graffiti and short inscriptions in Kharoshthi as well as
Brahmi, has come to light from the upper regions of Pakistan and modern
Kashmir. About two hundred short Kharoshthi inscriptions, some Brahmi inscription, and several human and ibex figures, seem to
belong to the Kushana period. The Khalatse
inscription
of Maharaja
Uvima Kavthisa of year 187 of the old Shaka era attests to Kushana presence
in Ladakh.
The so called 'Kanika Chorten' (stupa of
Kanishka) at Sani monastery in Zanskar also suggests Kushana influence as it
has a hemi-spherical dome which is not the usual feature of chortens in Ladakh. The Kushana besides, giving patronage to
Buddhist missionaries,
also
encouraged trade and commerce along this region with the trading centres of the
silk route.
Besides
7
excavated sites we have come across 114 explored sites from the state of Jammu
and Kashmir that have yielded remains of Kushanan period. Of these, at least 58
sites are in the Jammu district alone. The geographical distribution of these
sites reveals that most of them are located along the Chenab river around the
town of Akhnur and thus could be approached by riverine as well as land routes.
Of these 114 explored sites atleast 16 are single culture sites that were
occupied only in the Kushana period whereas 41 sites begin with the Kushana
period itself, i.e. habitation began here over fresh ground from the Kushana
period and was followed by other cultures. Kushana copper coins have been
recovered from Parihaspora in
Baramula district and Kalakam in
Jammu district. A hoard of copper coins of Kushanas was retrieved from Tarakpora in Baramula district. Some more Kushana coins were found from Batera Akhnoor, Ban-Sultan Tiba at
Miren Sahib and Jaisalmir fort
(Hiranagar), Jammu. The Sir Pratab Singh
Museum of Srinagar houses 4 gold coins and around 572 copper coins of Kushanas.
Out of the 4 gold coins, two belong to Kanishka and one each to Huvishka and
Vasudeva.
There are one copper coins each of Wema
Kadphises and Soter Megas, 103 of Kujula Kadphises and 467 of Kanishka. The Centre of Central Asian Museum of
Kashmir University also possesses 7 copper coins of Kushana kings of which 3
belong to Kujula Kadphises and 4 to Kanishka.
From
the above discussion, it is clear that atleast some parts of Jammu and Kashmir
were included in the Kushana empire right from the time of Wema Kadphises that
witnessed habitational expansion and prosperity during the early centuries of
the Christian era.
Himanchal Pradesh:
Kushana
pottery has been discovered from three sites – Nirmand (Kullu district), Hatwal village (Sirmaur district) and Duttanagar in Simla
district, where an 'urban Kushana settlement' has been briefly investigated. Sammurkalan in Una district
yielded
sculptures belonging to the Kushana period. The single culture settlement of Chetru has yielded two
phases of structural activity dated to 2 and 3rd century A.D., corresponding to the Kushana
period.
Panjab:
The
archaeological and numismatic data from the present state of Punjab attests
to continuous Kushana rule over the region. Several excavated sites in Punjab
have yielded rich Kushana levels with evidence of extensive structural
activities along with coins, seals, stamps, terracottas, etc., reflecting the
economic effervescence of the Kushana age. Punjab also became a leading centre
of Buddhist learning and philosophy under the patronage of Kushana rulers. The excavations at Sanghol in
Samrala tehsil of Ludhiana district have yielded remains of two Buddhist
stupas, monastery complexes, a palatial complex, an assembly hall and other
official buildings from Period IV dated to 100 B.C. – 300 A.D. It has been
identified with She-to-tu-lu of Hiuen-Tsang who refers to the existence of ten
monasteries in it.
The
excavation of the site of Sunet in
Ludhiana district yielded six cultural phases viz. Later Harappan (Period I),
PGW (Period II), NBPW (Period III), Sunga-Kushana (Period IV), Gupta (Period V)
and Post Gupta (Period VI). The mound was about 1750 1200 square feet, when Alexander Cunningham
visited the site and collected thousands of coins of different varieties including 269 coins of the
"earlier Indo-Scythians" (Kushanas) and
132
of the "Later Indo-Scythains"
(later Kushanas). Period IV (c. 200 B.C. – A.D. 300) at Sunet is a thick strata
revealing extensive habitational activities in seven structural phases. A
burnt-brick house with the courtyard, two rooms at the back, a kitchen,
bathroom and tairs were exposed during
excavations. The antiquities of the Sunga-Kushana period include ivory
chessmen, beads of semi-precious
stones and terracotta, ivory bangles, bone dice, toy cart wheels, copper rods,
terracotta incense burners, sprinklers, incurved bowls, moulds of medals,
inscribed terracotta seals and sealings and coins of Huvishka, Vasudeva and
later Kushana rulers. A large number of
coin moulds of Vasudeva have been discovered from site No. 4.
The
excavation at Kathpalon in Julandhar
district yielded remains of three cultures in an occupational deposit of 6
metre. The site was deserted after Period I (late Harappan and PGW) and was
reoccupied after a break in Period II representing Kushana period. Typical
Kushana pottery, beads, animal figurines, etc. were discovered from Period II after
which the site was again abandoned only to be reoccupied in Period III in
Medieval times.
Nagar in
Julandhar district yielded a three fold cultural sequence in an occupational
deposit of 5 metre. The site was abandoned after Period I (late Harappan and
PGW) to be reoccupied after a long break in Period II (Kushana). Typical
Kushana pottery, terracotta figurines and coins were
recovered
from Period II. The site was again deserted after the Kushana period and was
reoccupied in early medieval period represented by Period III.
Ghuram in
Patiala district shows evidence of continuous occupation from the PGW to the
Kushana period. The PGW (Period Ia), NBPW (Period Ib), Black Slipped Ware
(Period Ic) and Audumbara period (Period IIa) was followed by the Kushana
period (Period IIb) which was marked by incurved
bowls
and pottery with stamped designs.
The site was deserted after Period IIb for over a thousand years and was reoccupied
during early medieval age (Period IIIa). The excavation at Chhat in
Patiala district yielded in total eight layers
with
upper five layers of later Mughal period (1-5) and layer 6, 7 and 8 representing
grey ware, black-slipped ware and painted Grey ware respectively. The important
feature of this excavation is a ring well belonging to Kushana period. The ring
well was exposed at the depth of 4.80 m, sealed
by
layer 6. Its diameter is 76 centimetre and each ring measuring 10 to 12
centimetre in height and 2 centimetre in thickness. In all 45 courses of the
well were noticed measuring 5.95 metre in total length.
This well sheds light on the soakage system
that was used during Kushana period by individual house owners as well as for
collective sewage of waste water through these ring wells. Another system of
sewage used during ancient times was the piling of perforated jars at the
bottom one above the other. 2 Brass in
Patiala district has revealed evidence of occupation during Late Harappan, PGW
and Grey ware, Kushana and Medieval phase. Site-6 at Brass yielded a complete structural
data of the Kushana period with nine structural phases. In trench E1, layers
(4) to (7), exposed some burnt brick (32
23 5 centimetre) structures of Kushana period.
Three parallel walls of burnt bricks
with a width of 34 centimetre were discovered in north-east and south-east orientation. Another 57 centimetre
wide Kaccha brick wall, with north-south orientation, was noticed towards east
connecting the three walls.
The
exact nature of these structures is not ascertained yet. Some portions of a well, built of wedge-shaped bricks (42 23.5 19 5 centimetre) were also exposed underneath a
Kushana structure. Large quantity of Kushana
ceramics, stamps, seals and sealings, inscribed sherds in Kharoshthi
script, copper coins, etc. were recovered from layers (4) to (7) belonging to
the Kushana period.
Haryana:
The
ancient territory of Haryana was
well within the boundaries of the Kushana empire. The abundant discovery of
Kushana coins, coin moulds, typical Kushana ceramics, sculptures, bricks, etc.
from a large number of sites in Haryana suggests that the area remained under
Kushana occupation and perhaps some mint towns also came up in the region.
Kushana rule is also attested by the discovery of two inscribed pillars at Amin
which bear the characters of Kushana period and two danapatras referring to 'Kanishka' from
Khokhrakot.
Haryana seems to have been thickly populated
during the early centuries of the Christian era. Excavations at Sugh, Agroha,
Daulatpur, Khokhrakot(Rohtak), Harsh-ka-tila (Thanesar), Raja-Karan-ka-Qila, Naurangabad, Harnol,
Muhammadnagar, etc. have yielded rich material remains suggestive
of
the urban character of these sites. A number of large mounds have also been noticed
during explorations which might have been sites of towns during the Kushana
period.
Sugh, in
Yamunanagar district, was first surveyed and identified with the ancient city of Srughna by Alexander
Cunningham. This extensive mound covers an area of five kimometre in
circumference and rises to a height of about 15 metre. Excavation by Suraj Bhan
during 1963-64 and 1965-66 revealed three periods of occupation with Period I-A
characterized by PGW and NBPW and Period I-B with only NBPW and coarse red ware.
It is in Period II (100 B.C. – A.D. 300) that we encounter early historic red
ware and red polished ware along with excellent specimens of terracottas of
Kushana tradition.
This period yielded remains of houses of
sundried and burnt bricks (36 23 8 centimetre), beautiful human and animal
terracotta figurines, stamped pottery, a
potter stamp, beads of jasper, carnelian, agate, terracotta and glass,
bull-headed bottle stoppers, antimony rods and pins of copper, arrow heads,
axes and rings of iron, etc.
Remains of a burnt brick structure, identified with a monastery of Kushana period,
have been dug out at a distance of 1.6
kilometre in the south-west of Sugh. It is a rectangular enclosure measuring
approximately 130 70 metre with massive walls of 75 centimetre
width and 6 metre height.
Discovery of a large number of uninscribed
cast copper coins apart from Kushana coins is suggestive of an urban character of the
site. Sugh seems to be an important centre of terracotta art. Both hand-made
and mould figures of Mother goddesses, Vamanaka, Yaksha, Shiva, Matrikas, etc.
have been obtained from the site.
A
stupa-cum-monastery complex was discovered at Adi Badri in Yamunanagar district showing two
phases of structural activity. In phase I of Period I a burnt brick stupa was
constructed at the site during the later Kushana period with typical Kushana burnt
bricks (35 20 6 centimetre, 33
20 5 centimetre, 30 22 6 centimetre and 23 25 6 centimetre) arranged in tapering circular fashion. The
lowest 23 course of the burnt bricks were traced out during an excavation in
2002-03.
During
the excavation at Muhammadnagar in
Gurgaon district, a sixfold cultural sequence was encountered in 34
habitational layers representing Black slipped
ware, PGW, NBPW, Sunga, Kushana and late medieval periods respectively.
A four metre deposit of Period V belonging to
Kushana period was revealed with two sub periods VA (layers 8-11) and VB
(layers 5-7) Kushana structures in the form of house complexes of various sizes
with at least five rooms were noticed on either side of a narrow lane running
from east to west, having an average
width of 80 centimetre and paved with brick bats. Typical Kushana bricks (36 22-24 5-6 centimetre and 42 26 6 centimetre) were found to be used in
construction of rooms and sometimes for paving
floors. A sunken wall of 26 courses of bricks and several huge structures, some
rising upto 40 courses of bricks, were exposed.
Other important finds of the site include four
Kushana coins, terracotta human and animal figurines, bangles, beads, etc. Red
ware shapes from Kushana level include bowls, lids, lamps, basin, bases, etc.
The site seems to have been abandoned after
Kushana period as Period VI revealed material of late medieval phase. The
excavation at Harnol in
Gurgaon district revealed a six-fold cultural sequence similar to that of
Muhammadnagar representing Black Slipped ware, PGW, NBPW, Sunga, Kushana and
late medieval period.
Khokhrakot in Rohtak has yielded both
epigraphic and numismaticmmaterial related to the Kushanas. Two large size
stone Danpatras made of red sandstone from Mathura were recovered from
the site, with a Brahmi inscription on their rim. The inscription informs us
that the danapatra was donated by 'Kanishka, whose real dharma is danam or
charity'.
The
discovery of Kushana coin-moulds of Kansihka-I, Huvishka and other rulers from Naurangabad
in Bhiwani district indicates that the town served as a minting station under the
Kushanas. The huge, almost rectangular mound of Naurangabad, measuring 58 acres
yielded habitational deposits of about 11 metre representing three cultural
periods, viz. early Yaudheya (Period I), Kushana (Period II) and late Yaudheya
(Period III). It was a fortified
historical town in Period I itself. A deposit of about 1.15 metre represents
the Kushana period (Period II). A burnt brick structure of 11
courses
with 1.35 metre width and 73 centimetre height was partly exposed. A 70
centimetre wide, 3.77 metre long and 1.95 metre high mud-brick wall was also
found with a foundation pit. Another house made of mud-brick walls with several rooms was unearthed of which two rooms
(2.10 2.27 m and 2.10 1.63 metre) were fully exposed.
Apart from structures, Kushana coin moulds, arecanut shaped terracotta beads, terracotta
human heads of Kushana style and Kushana copper coins form the important finds
of Period II. Red ware predominates the
ceramic industry of Naurangabad which includes storage jars, medium-sized vases
in fine fabric, spouted vases, small to large-sized basins, sprinklers with
pointed finial, handis, a piece of inkpot type lid, miniature vases, etc.
The
extensive mound, Harsha-ka-Tila at
Thanesar, covering about 1 kilometre in length, 750 metre in width and between
15-18 metre in height, was excavated by B.M. Pande (1988-89 onward). The
evidence shows that the earliest habitation at the site is represented by red
ware belonging to the Kushana period although a few PGW potsherds were also
recovered. A mudrampart of the Kushana
period with a width of about 15 metre and height of 2 metre showing two phases
of construction was exposed on the southern Slope of the mound in TSR-3. Inside the fortification
many
house walls and other associated
features of township were found.
The
mound at Bhuna in
Fatehabad district is more than 25 metre in height and Bhadas in Gurgaon district has also yielded
large sized Kushana bricks. A hoard of 68 copper coins of later Kushana king
Vasudeva-II was found from Madina-4 buried in a bowl of Kushana period.
Delhi:
In
the Delhi region, excavations of Purana
Qila and Bhorgarh have revealed rich Kushana levels with
structural activity. The site of Purana Qila was under continuous habitation
from PGW period (Period I) onwards till the Mughal period with evidence of NBPW
(Period II), Shaka-Kushana (Period
III),
Gupta period, Post-Gupta, Rajput and Sultanate periods in between.
The Shaka-Kushana period (Period III) was
marked by regular and systematically built
structures of burnt bricks (37 22 5 centimetre) accompanied with red polished
ware consisting of Kushana bowls and sprinklers. During explorations Kushana
red ware was also noticed from a few other sites in Delhi, viz. Jhatikra,
Kharkari Nahar near Najafgarh and Gordon Highlanders near Badli ki Sarai.
These sites yielded Kushana red ware along with
PGW and medieval ceramics. Some coins of the nameless king 'Soter Megas' have
also been reported from Delhi.
Rajasthan:
Kushana
red ware and coins have been brought to light from several sites in Rajasthan.
Although it is difficult to determine the exact boundaries of the Kushana
empire in Rajasthan,
some parts of the state might have been under Kushana dominion. The region
certainly formed part of the Kushana sphere of influence.
The excavation at Noh in Bharatpur district yielded a five fold
cultural sequence beginning with OCP (Period I) followed by BRW (Period II),
PGW (Period III), NBPW (Period IV) and the Sunga-Kushana (Period V) ph ase.
Rang Mahal in Hanumangarh district was
excavated by Swedish archaeologist Hanna
Rydh in 1952-54. Phase III of the site coincides with the Kushana period and is
marked by urban development.
The excavation yielded red polished ware,
beads of semi precious stones, glass bangles, perforated pots, kiln-burnt
decorated bricks, human figurines in faience and a bronze seals of c. A.D. 300.
Excavations revealed eight structural phases with houses made of sun-baked
bricks laid in English bond system. Floors paved with mud bricks and drain
pipes were also encountered in the phase I II of the site. Iron and bronze
tools and implements were also discovered, along with nearly 105 copper coins
including one coin each of Kanishka-I, Huvishka-I and Vasudeva-II, with rest of
the coins minted by either Kanishka III or the Murundas. The typical
black-on-red painted pottrery of Rang Mahal has been generally assigned to the
late Kushana and early Gupta times and
has been
discovered
from a large number of sites along with Kushana red ware in Rajasthan. The site
continued to flourish till c. A.D. 600, after which it was Deserted At Ahar, Balathal and Gilund, we notice a hiatus of over a millennium as
these sites were deserted after Period I (Ahar culture) and were reoccupied
only in the Sunga-Kushana period (Period II).
Phase II-B of Ahar in Udaipur district is associated with
typical Kushana bowls and other ceramic
types,
terracotta votive tanks, shell bangles, ear-studs, etc. characteristics of 1stb-3rdb
century A.D.
Bagoro in Bhilwara district, is a late stone age
site excavated by the Rajasthan archaeological department. It yielded
Sunga-Kushana pottery from 2 nd century B.C. to 2 nd century A.D. associated with iron objects .
A
vast majority of habitation in Rajasthan were either deserted after the Kushana period altogether or were reoccupied
after a hiatus of a thousand years in the medieval period. Kushana red ware,
sculptures and coins have been reported from a number of sites in Rajasthan.
Aurel Stein found Kushana coins of Kadphises II from old mounds that he
explored at Suratgarh and Hanumangarh in north Rajasthan. Kushana coins have
been discovered at Rang Mahal, Sambhar, Pisangan, etc. and Kushana seals too
are known from sites like Rang Mahal.
A hoard of 10 gold coins of later Kushana
rulers was discovered from Dada Fatehpur in Jhunjhunu district. Another hoard of 297
copper Kushana coins was retrived from Jamva-Ramgarh in Jaipur
district.
Other sites of Rajasthan that have yielded Kushana coins are Khoh, Ismailpur-ki-Doongari
and Sambhar in Jaipur district, Kuradhan in Sikar district and Karoti, Nahar and Rang Mahal Theri
in Hanumangarh district. Thus the archaeological
evidence in the form of 11 excavated
sites and 85
explored
sites yielding Kushana material suggest that some parts of Rajasthan were under
Kushana dominion.
Madhya
Preadesh
The
discovery of two Kushana inscriptions of year 22 and year 28 from Sanchi has
been taken as evidence for the extension of Kushana rule in the Akara or
eastern Malwa region. The inscription of year 22 records the setting up of the
image of Shakyamuni by Vidyamati in the reign of Rajan
Vasukushana
which might have been a corruption of the name
Vasishka Kushana. The other Sanchi inscription records the installation of the
statue of a Bodhisattva by Madhurika, daughter of Vira, in the Dharmadeva
vihara in year 28 of Maharaja Rajatiraja Devaputra Shahi Vasishka. In
the Rabtak
inscription
also Kanishka proclaims his sovereignity in the satrapies and cities of India
including Ujjain (Ozeno).
The excavations of a few sites in Madhya Pradesh
have also brought to light some material related to the Kushanas from
'Naga-Kushana', 'Kushana Kshatrapa' or 'early historical' period Nendur in Raisen district yielded inscribed
seals and painted as well as stamped pottery from Period III, i.e. Kushana
Kshatrapa period (1 century A.D. to fourth century A.D.). The site was occupied from 5th
century B.C. till medieval times.
Kayatha in
Ujjain district is a chalocolithic site that yielded Kushana red ware, terracotta votive tanks, skin
rubbers, terracotta figurines, crucible and querns from the Sunga-Kushana
period (Period III). A large brick structure with a number of rooms, walls,
platforms, bathroom and drainage for letting out water, may belong to the
Kushana period.
During the excavation of Tumain in Guna district, four structural phases
were encountered belonging to pre-Sunga, Sunga, Kushana and Gupta periods
respectively. The main settlement on the mound was found to be
of the Kushana period (Period III) which had an occupational deposit of
about
2.5 metre marked by a brick structure, a mud platform and stone boulders. Red
polished ware, stamped pottery, small stone images, shell bangles, copper
beads, terracotta figurines of Yakshi and iron objects were the other
noticeable finds of Period III (1 st to 5 th
century A.D.).
The excavation at Amilkoni in Rewa district yielded typical Kushana pottery
in layers 6 to 1 with a thickness of about 1.15 metre. The excavation at Dangwada in district Ujjain, revealed SungaKushana
occupation in Period III which was marked by painted red ware.
Similarly,
excavation at Runija in the same district yielded painted pottery
of Kushana-Kshatrapa period (Period IV) Two Kushana gold coins, i.e. a quarter
dinara of Huvishka and a dinara of Kanishka-III, were discovered at Harda in
Hoshangabad district.
An issue of Wema Kadphises of the rare biga type of silver alloy was discovered from Vidisha.
A hoard of worn out twenty five Kushana copper coins was found at the old Kenda
Zamindari in Bilaspur district of which
four belonging to Kanishka and Huvishka were acquired by the Nagpur Museum. In
Bilaspur district another fifteen Kushana copper coins were found in the
villageJhaihapuri, a hoard of eight
Kushana copper coins at village Katangi and some Kushana copper coins along
with Yaudheya coins were found at village Pendarwa. A hoard of 757 Kushana copper coins was
discovered in Shahdol including 44 coins of Wema Kadphises, 324 coins of
Kanishka and 362 of Huvishka along with the unidentifiable worn out 27 coins. Another copper coin of Vasudeva was found at
Tripuri near Jabalpur. A large number of
Kushana copper coins were found at Sanchi near Bhopal. Another 20 corroded and defaced
"Indo-Scythian" (Kushana) coins were discovered at Indo-Khera in
Indore including one each of Wema Kadphises, Kanishka and Vasudeva and of
Huvishka.
The epigraphic and numismatic evidence from
Madhya Pradesh, taken together does suggest Kushana authority in the region.
But the state has yielded Kushana material from only 9 excavated and 10 explored sites. The paucity of
archaeological material viewed in the background of rival claims of the
Satvahanas and the Western Kshatrapas over Malwa, suggests that the extention
of the Kushana dominance in Madhya Pradesh was perhaps for a brief period and
over a limited area.
Two
Kushana gold coins, i.e. a quarter dinara of Huvishka and a dinara of
Kanishka-III, were discovered at Harda in Hoshangabad district. An issue of Wema Kadphises of the rare biga type of silver alloy was discovered from Vidisha.
A hoard of worn out twenty five Kushana
copper coins was found at the old Kenda Zamindari in Bilaspur district of which four belonging to Kanishka and
Huvishka were acquired by the Nagpur Museum. In Bilaspur district another
fifteen Kushana copper coins were found in the village Jhaihapuri, a hoard of eight Kushana copper coins at
village Katangi
And some Kushana copper coins along with
Yaudheya coins were found at village Pendarwa.
A hoard of 757 Kushana copper coins was
discovered in Shahdol including 44 coins of Wema Kadphises, 324 coins of
Kanishka and 362 of Huvishka along with the unidentifiable worn out 27 coins. Another copper coin of Vasudeva was found at
Tripuri near Jabalpur. A large number of
Kushana
copper coins were found at Sanchi near Bhopal.
Another 20 corroded and defaced "Indo-Scythian" (Kushana)
coins were discovered at Indo-Khera in Indore including one each of Wema
Kadphises, Kanishka and Vasudeva and of Huvishka.
The epigraphic and numismatic evidence from
Madhya Pradesh, taken together does suggest Kushana authority in the region.
But the state has yielded Kushana material from only 9 excavated and 10 explored sites. The paucity of
archaeological material viewed in the background of rival claims of the
Satvahanas and the Western Kshatrapas over Malwa, suggests that the extention of
the Kushana dominance in Madhya Pradesh was perhaps for a brief period and over
a limited area. thousands of Kushana coins, numerous Jain, Buddhist and Brahmanical establishments,
a few secular structures, devakulas, stupas, viharas, naga shrines, Kushana
donar effigies, sculptures, beads of semi-precious stones,terracotta figurines
etc.
Uttar Pradesh:
It is very likely that Mathura was the
headquarter ofthe Kushanshahr in the east. Alexander Cunningham
discovered several inscriptions of Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva ranging from
year 5 to 98 in the Kanishka era and identified the sites of the Upagupta
Vihara, Huvishka Vihara and Kunda-Sukha Vihara at Katra and Jail mound respectively. The inscriptions also suggest the existence of
many viharas at Mathura like the Buddharakshita
Vihara, Chutaka Vihara, Srivihara, Suvarnakara Vihara, Dharmahastika Vihara,
Kastikiya Vihara and the Vihara situated at Anyor. Other
religious establishments recorded in the inscriptions are the Mathura Vanaka
stupa, the Naga shrine of Dadhikarna, and the Devalaya of Kanishka and
Huvishka.
Subsequent excavations brought to light the
remains of a Jain stupa, two Jaina temples, a Buddhist Vihara and a Vaishnava
temple from the Kankali mound.
From
Jamalpur mound apart
from a Buddhist monastery built by Huvishka, a Naga shrine was also discovered.
Other Kushana remains from Mathura
include brick structures, roofing tiles, fortifications, typical Kushana
ceramics, sculptures, an ivory comb, shell bangles, a terracotta rattle, seals,
etc., along with thousands of Kushana coins. The Government Museum, Mathura houses a group
of statues of Wema Takto (earlier identified as that of Wema Kadphises),
Kanishka and KushanaShatrap, Chashtana, recovered from the ruins of a devakula
at Mat, which throws
light on the political importance of Mathura. To the best of our knowledge, the coin holdings of the Government
Museum, Mathura contain more than 3665 Kushana
coins including atleast 54 gold
coins, 3 silver
coins and 3608 copper
coins of Kushana rulers.
Excavations conducted at Sonkh by Herbert Hartel during 1969-70 revealed
evidence of occupation from PGW period onwards, with disturbed medieval layers.
Period IV (1 st to 3 rd century A.D.) belonging to the Kushana period
has been divided into two sub-periods. Remains of seven houses belonging to the
earliest phase of level 16 of Period IV (Kushana phase) were exposed, of which
house yielded 120 Kushana copper coins stored in a jar. Of them, two belong to
Huvishka and the rest are either of Vasudeva-I or Kanishka III.
These seven levels belonging to Kushana phase
show a densely build up area of residential houses of baked bricks with rooms
around courtyard and bathrooms. A street
lined with shops, bronze objects, votive tanks, terracotta figurines, stone plaques,
etc. were also discovered, which confirm the urban character of the settlement.
Further excavations of 1970-71 and 1971-72,
brought to light an apsidal temple dedicated to the Naga cult, assigned to the
time of Kanishka-I, on the basis of the coins discovered in the debris of this
temple.
It was an elaborate structure standing on a
11.50 metre high brick platform. Several coins of Wema Kadphises, Kanishka and
a "sandwich" of coins of both
these rulers have been found in the temple ground itself. Another apsidal
temple (9.70 8.85 metre), with roughly nine structural
phases belonging to the 1st and 2 nd centuries A.D., was also discovered, which was
the central focus of the residential structures and streets around it.
A matrika
plaque and a large number of plaques depicting Durga as Mahisasurmardini were found in and around this temple. The
available epigraphic, numismatic, structural and material evidence
from
several sites of Mathura, strongly suggest that it was the most important more
than 3665 Kushana
coins including atleast 54 gold
coins, 3 silver
coins and 3608 copper
coins of Kushana rulers.
Excavations conducted at Sonkh by Herbert Hartel during 1969-70 revealed
evidence of occupation from PGW period onwards, with disturbed medieval layers.
Period IV (1 st to 3 rd century A.D.) belonging to the Kushana period
has been divided into two sub-periods. Remains of seven houses belonging to the
earliest phase of level 16 of Period IV (Kushana phase) were exposed, of which
house yielded 120 Kushana copper coins stored in a jar. Of them, two belong to
Huvishka and the rest are either of Vasudeva-I or Kanishka III.
These seven levels belonging to Kushana phase
show a densely build up area of residential houses of baked bricks with rooms
around courtyard and bathrooms. A street
lined with shops, bronze objects, votive tanks, terracotta figurines, stone plaques,
etc. were also discovered, which confirm the urban character of the settlement.
Further excavations of 1970-71 and
1971-72, brought to light an apsidal temple dedicated to the Naga cult, assigned
to the time of Kanishka-I, on the basis of the coins discovered in the debris
of this temple. It was an elaborate
structure standing on a 15 11.50 metre high brick platform. Several coins
of Wema Kadphises, Kanishka and a "sandwich"
of coins of both these rulers have been found in the temple ground itself.
Another apsidal temple (9.70 8.85 metre), with roughly nine structural phases belonging to the 1 st and 2 nd centuries A.D., was also discovered, which was
the central focus of the residential structures and streets around it.
A matrika
plaque and a large number of plaques depicting Durga as Mahisasurmardini were found in and around this temple. The
available epigraphic, numismatic, structural and material evidence
from
several sites of Mathura, strongly suggest that it was the most important The excavations conducted by B.B. Lal during
1950-52 at Hastinapur brought
to light five distinct habitational stratas. The first three occupational layers
ranging from pre 1200 B.C. to 3 rd century B.C. represent the OCP (Period I), PGW
(Period II) and the NBPW (Period III) periods respectively. The habitation came
to an abrupt end towards the close of the Period III due to a great fire and a
new town emerged on its ruins during Period IV. This Period IV, extending from
the early 2 nd century B.C. to the end of the 3 century A.D.,
includes Kushana layers, as the late level of this period (sub- period 6) have
yielded ten copper coins imitating the coins of Vasudeva, datable to the middle of the 3rd
century A.D.
Among these ten Kushana imitation coins, six
are of 'king at altar and Shiva with bull' type while four are 'standing king
and enthroned goddess' type. The excavation of Hastinapur revealed seven
structural sub-periods in Period IV, marked by houses made invariably of burnt
bricks, an exclusive red ware industry with typical Kushana shapes like
sprinklers, button-knobbed lids, etc. and about half a dozen votive tanks.
A large number of beads of terracotta,
semi-precious stones, copper and glass objects, bangles made of glass, copper,
shell, ivory, agate terracotta and bone, copper antimony rods, iron nails,
copper miniature bells, terracotta figurines and seals of the 2 nd and 3 rd century A.D., were also unearthed during the
excavations.
This rich material suggests that Period IV was
the most prosperous period at Hastinapur when it became a full-fledged town.
The site declined after the Kushana rule and was inhabited again in the
13 th century A.D. after a hiatus of about a
thousand years.
Moradhwaj
in Bijnor district, was inhabited since
the 5 century B.C. but acquired an urban
character in Period-II B which corresponds to c. 200 B.C.–A.D. 300. In the Kushana phase, apart from other baked
brick structures, a brick temple was erected in the heart of the
settlement.Excavations have also revealed the remains of a stupa, numerous
small tables bearing the image of Buddha, typical Kushana ceramics, terracotta beads,
a gold coin of Vasudeva I, etc.
The site seems to be abandoned after the
Kushana period, as no post Kushana remains have been unearthed Kaseri in
Meerut district, is an excavated rural site which yielded predominant red ware
ceramics from Period IV corresponding to Kushana period, along with baked
bricks with finger marks.
A hoard of twenty two gold coins belonging to
Kushanas and Indo-Sassanians was discovered from
Harsinghpur in
the same district. In the district of Meerut and Muzaffarnagar, eighteen
extensively explored sites have revealed red ware, characteristic of Kushana
period, succeeded by the medieval ware.
Some of these sites are fairly large and could
possibly represent the remains of towns of SungaKushana period.
Excavation at Hulas in Saharanpur district brought to light a
massive brick structure of Kushana period from Period IV (Sunga-Kushana). This period
yielded numerous copper coins, beads of semi precious stones, shell bangles,
terracotta beads and bangles, along with red ware in typical Kushana shapes
like sprinklers, spouted jars, lids, etc.
The evidence suggests that Hulas was a
flourishing town till the end of the Sunga-Kushana period. Forty explored sites
in Saharanpur district have yielded red ware of Sunga-Kushana assemblage.
Antiquities belonging to the Kushana period
have also been unearthed from Atranjikhera in
Etah district. The excavation of the large mound, measuring 3960 1500 65 feet brought to light antiquities belonging
to the PGW, NBPW, Sunga, Kushana and Gupta periods.
During Period IV (c. 200 B.C. – 300 A.D.) red
ware pottery of medium fabric was reported along with terracotta human and
animal figurines, burnt brick structures, beads, two copper coins of Kushana
king Vasudeva and a coin mould. We can
safely deduce from the available material that Atranjikhera was a flourishing
urban settlement in the Kushana period.
The excavation at Katinagar,in Etah district revealed evidence
of habitation in three periods, viz. Period I (1200-1800 B.C. – PGW), Period II
(NBPW) and Period III (200 B.C. – A.D. 600). Period III was marked by presence
of red ware comprising basins, vases, spouts, sprinklers, carinated handis, lid with central knob and other shapes
of Kushana and Gupta period. Structural
remains, bricks (36 23 6 centimetre), shell ear-ring, beads of carnelian, shell, jasper and agate, votive
tanks, etc
were also exposed during the excavation. The
site was deserted after Period III. Twenty six explored sites in the district
of Etawah
6
and Mainpuri have also yielded a few Kushana
copper coins along with Sunga-Kushana terracottas and red ware. Excavation at Ranihat in Tehri district of present day Uttarakhand
brought into light bottlenecked sprinklers, miniature vases and other red ware shapes
from Period II-B which corresponds to c. 200 B.C. – A.D. 200. The site revealed evidence of habitation from
circa sixth century B.C. in three Periods,
viz. Period I (glossy red ware), Period II-A (NBPW), Period II-B (no NBPW) and
Period III (6 th -12 century A.D.). Iron objects in large quantities were also unearthened from Period II-B. The
habitation was deserted after the Kushana period and was reoccupied only in the
medieval period.
Panduwala,
an
excavated site in Pauri-Garhwal, has revealed a single-phase culture of the
Kushana period indicating that human activities began at the site and perhaps
in this area, during the Kushana period. A burnt brick structure (31 22 8 centimetre) and red ware was discovered
during excavation. Period I-B at Bharat
Mata Mandir, Dehradun,
has yielded red ware along with some Sunga-Kushana structures. The early phase
of Virabhadra temple in Rishikesh,
(Dehradun district), which began around second century A.D. also corresponds to
late Kushana period and has
revealed
red polished ware, sprinklers, bowls, vases, mud brick structures and some Kushana coins. Purola in
Uttarkashi district, is an older site which yielded typical Sunga-Kushana red ware. Bandarkhet is Tehri district, also yielded red
ware, bowls, basins, vases, spouted jars, etc. from Period I which corresponds
to 2 nd century B.C. – A.D. 2 nd century.
Thirty one sites in Nainital district have
revealed red ware and Kashipur yielded
252 copper coins and 3 gold coins of later Kushana rulers. A hoard of forty
five Kushana gold coins along with five pieces of ornaments was found in a
metal pot at Muni-ki-Reti, Garhwal of which 44 belong to Huvishka and one is of
Vasudeva. This broadly points to the
gradual expansion of human occupation in this area during Kushana times. Kushana
occupation of the town of Ahichchhatra in
Bareilly district, isconfirmed by the numismatic, ceramic and terracotta
evidence. This ancient mound of about 25 metre height in the present village of
Ramnagar was first noticed by Alexander Cunningham and was excavated by K.N.
Dikshit in 1940-44. The excavation revealed evidence of continuous occupation
in nine stratas dating from pre-300 B.C. to A.D. 1100, of which Statum IV was marked by the
appearance of Kushana coins.
The
excavation of Sankisa in
Farrukhabad district revealed evidence of continuous activity from PGW to Gupta
period.
In
the quadrant 3 of square E-10, layers 3 and 4 have yielded Kushana material in
the form of brick
structures,
tiles, sharp edged and incurved bowls in red ware, beads, glass bangles,
terracotta figurines, etc. Siyapur in Kannauj district has a mound of 58 40 metre (2320 square metre) which rises at
the height of 6 metre from village level and the village itself is 1.5 or 2 metre higher than
the surrounding ground level. Trench A1, yielded twenty stratified layers
divided into four cultural periods, viz. pre PGW (Period I), PGW (Period II),
NBPW (Period III) and Kushana period (Period IV). Of these, the top most layers
1 to 8 are associated with Kushana period.
Jajmau, in Kanpur district has revealed the remains
of a Kushana house complex with bathrooms and covered drains and a street lined
with a row of houses from Period II corresponding to Kushana age. Other
antiquities from the site include copper coins, sprinklers, ivory objects, iron
objects, votive tanks, inscribed and uninscribed sealings, etc. Although the
site was settled in the NBPW phase (Period I), the extensive use of baked
bricks for construction started in the Kushana period, after which the site was
deserted.
Excavation
at Hulaskhera (400 400 metre) in Lucknow district, exposed remains of a well planned settlement
with three levels of large, baked brick
structures, two housing complexes with many rooms, a well planned drainage
system and a two kilometer broad passage connected with by lanes from Phase III
which may be identified as Kushana phase. The floors were either of burnt
bricks or rammed floor treated with of lime and clay mixed with potsherds or
with both. Besides numerous Kushana coins of Wema Kadphises, Kanishka, Huvishka
and Vasudeva, a ring-shaped copper seal with legend Sri Vasudeva, a gold
image of Karttikeya, terracottas, iron and copper artifacts, copper and
gold-coated glass beads, bone arrowheads, potter's stamps, votive tanks, red
ware, skin rubbers, etc. were also unearthened from the site. All this evidence
suggests that Hulaskhera was an affluent urban centre in the Kushana empire.
Apart from the botanical remains of the earlier period i.e. rice, wheat,
barley, African millet, bathua and indigo, remains of some new crops including
green gram, grass pea, oat, jowar millet, silk cotton (semul), garden pea,
jujebe-ber, bahera, blue stem grass, meadow grass, etc. were also collected
during the excavations.
Large amount of charred and uncharred animal
bones, sometimes bearing cut marks were also
discovered, suggesting that meat remained an integral part of the diet
of the settlers of this period.
in
Lucknow district, is the late Kushana period of 2 nd AD.
During the period between c. 200 B.C. and 200
A.D. human activity seems to be at its helm in the Lucknow region as the number
of settlements increased considerably and about three dozen sites with growing
population have been identified. The
State Museum, Lucknow houses atleast 2326
Kushana
coins including 228 gold
coins and 2098 copper
coins of different Kushana rulers. Manwan in
Sitapur district yielded evidence of habitation from c. 500 B.C. (NBPW) to
medieval period. In the Sunga-Kushana phase (Period II), sprinklers, inkpot type
lids, terracotta figurines, a large number of Kushana coins and terracotta
sealings with legends in Brahmi characters were
unearthed.
Ayodhya or Saket in Faizabad district seems to be habitated
since the NBPW phase. A massive brick structure with evidence of construction
in several phases was dug out in 1969-70 at Kuber Tila, which perhaps belongs to
the Kushana period. Kanishka claims to have ruled over the satrapy of Saketa
in the Rabtak inscription, which
confirms the inclusion of Ayodhya in Kushana empire.
Excavation at Sanchankot in
Unnao district yielded a cultural sequence of five periods from PGW to Rajput
phase. The richest deposit of 56 metre thickness is ascribable to the Kushana
period (Period III) which is represented by red ware, both dull and slipped. The
mound at Sanchankot
Basically
consists of the remnants of a stupa. Structural remains made of kiln- burnt
bricks laid in headers and stretchers in mud mortar were exposed in four phases. Walls containing 63 courses were found
intact in Trench T4. Floors of houses made with rammed earth, brick-paved
floors, drains of fired bricks and finished plaster, were also exposed during
excavation. A large number of
Kushana
coins, a bone seal with a peacock figure and Brahmi legend, a circular terracotta
seal with a knob, bearing a Shivalinga and Brahmi alphabets of
Sunga-Kushana period, net sinkers, crucibles, ivory and shellbangles, wheels,
iron and copper objects, shell-beads, stamps, gamesmen,etc. were also
unearthed. A trench laid on Jaleshar mound yielded 7000archaic terracotta
figurines kept in a heap, in a room made of burnt bricks of Kushana period. A
number of Kushana bowls were also recovered from this house, which indicates it
to be a potter's house or shop. These
figurines are
all
handmade with fine grained and well levigated clay, with diffused heads and
almost all are palm-less. The common pottery shapes of the Period III are bowls,
nail-headed basins, vases, button-knobbed lids, spouted vessels, handis, etc.
Stam ped designs are also noticed on some potsherds. All the above evidence
points to the urban character of the site in Kushana period.
Sravasti or Sahet-Mahet, on the borders of Bahraich and Gonda
districts, is another important ancient site where Kushana occupation has been
attested by numismatic, epigraphic and other archaeological evidences. The twin
name of Sahet-Mahet denotes two groups of remain with Sahet
representing
the famous Buddhist monastery – the Jetavana Vihara and Mahet – the ruins of
the ancient city of Sravasti. More than
107 copper coins and several seals and inscriptions, suggesting close contact
with other contemporary towns like Mathura and Saketa, have been discovered
from the site, over several years of excavations and explorations. An inscribed
figure of Buddha was discovered here by Cunningham, which was imported from Mathura.
Vogel discovered some clay sealings and one
seal die, with legends in the Brahmi characters of Kushana type during his
excavation of 1907-08.
J.H. Marshall's excavations (1910-11) exposed
two importantinscriptions of Kushana period recording pious gifts of
sculptures, which were carved by a sculptor of Mathura. Two dated inscriptions
of the reign of Kanishka and an inscribed bowl of Kushana period was also
recovered during excavation. A jar containing 105 copper coins, of which four
belong to Kanishka, two to Huvishka and as many as ninety six to Vasudeva, was discovered
in one of the cells of a monastery.
A large number of beads of gold and various
stones along with large pearls, were also recovered from the relic chamber of a
stupa belonging to the Kushana period. Excavation of 1959 by K.K. Sinha also
confirmed that Sravasti was an important religious centre and a prosperous city
under the Kushanas. Several structural remains of Kushana period like a
concrete road, monasteries, courtyards, cells, drains, several chambers, etc.
were exposed during excavations.
Excavation
at Sapaur in Gonda
district yielded red ware and black ware in medium fabric with typical Kushana
shapes like spouted vessels, prinklers, bowls, basins, dishes, vases etc. along
with terracotta figurines, beads, iron implements, etc. from Period II assigned
to Kushana era. Some
potsherds
were decorated with bright red slips and stamped designs. Siswania in Basti district has been identified with
the ancient city of Setavya by
B.R. Mani.
Three mounds in a series (SWN 1, 2 and 3) are
found along the Kuwana river covering an area of approximately 1000 300 metre. Exploratory soundings at Bankata and Deoraon in Basti district also provided evidence
of similar cultural assemblage from pre NBPW to Kushana period and similar
material, as discovered at Siswania.
A trial excavation at Orai revealed a
cultural deposit of 2.72 metre with a sequence of two periods
represented
by red ware and brick structures of Kushana and Gupta period. A
very
large tank of Kushana period was noticed at Mundiar, About 500 metre southeast of the tank, a
habitational site was discovered at village Dakharia, the cultural assemblage of which
goes back to the Kushana period.
Mehandaval
and
Vehalinga (Behil) in
Basti district also yielded evidence of habitation from NBPW to Kushana period.
About 81 sites were explored in the Basti and Siddharthnagar districts of which
more than 63 sites revealed Sunga-Kushana assemblage. These sites yielded more than 100 copper coins
of Wema Kadphises, Kanishka, Huvishka and Ayodhya rulers. The excavation at Kopia in Sant Kabir Nagar district (earlier in
Basti) brought to light evidence of glass production from the Kushana period.
This fortified site surrounded by a moat, is situated on the right bank of
river Ami
and
its mound extends over an area of about 1 square kilometer with a height of
about 12 metre.
Lahuradeva in
Sant Kabir Nagar district is a Neolithic site with rice cultivation, which
yielded remains of Sunga-Kushana phase (Period V) from its last period of
occupation. Period V representing the early historic period (early centuries B.C./A.D.)
revealed a 70 metre thick occupational deposit, characterized by the appearance
of burnt brick structures with brick paved floors. The excavation at Piprahwa and Ganwaria in Siddharthnagar district by K.M.
Srivastava, revealed some structures dated to the Kushana period (Period IV – 2
nd -3 rd century A.D.). A monastic complex of well
burnt bricks was exposed with as many as 17 rooms and an extensive floor of
baked bricks, which might have served the purpose of a public hall.
The
site was identified with Kapilavastu by K.M. Srivastava and yielded 58 Kushana
copper coins from Period IV, of which 45 were found at Ganwaria (including a
hoard of 37 coins), the main township and 13 at Piprahwa, the monastic complex.
Of these, 4 coins are of Wema Kadphises,
24 of Kanishka and 15 of Huvishka. This numismatic evidence along with the
discovery of many seals in Kushana characters with the expressions 'Devaputra
Vihara', 'Kapilavastu' and 'Bikhu
Sanghas' does suggest the influence of Kushana rule. As the hoard of
37 coins from Ganwaria contains 20 coins of Kanishka and 11 coins of Huvishka, it
seems that the hoard was collected during the rule of Huvishka, when the coins
of Kanishka, his predecessors, were in wide circulation in and around Ganwaria.
Although habitation started at this site
around 800 B.C., the occupation became impressive only in Sunga-Kushana times
when a larger structural complex came up along with other material signs of
urban life, such as use of baked brick for construction, beads of glass, semi
precious stones, bangles, a mature money economy, etc. The wide acceptability of Kushana currency in
Piprahwa and Ganwaria is sufficiently attested by the numismatic evidence, if
not direct Kushana rule.
The excavations conducted by John Marshall at Bhita in Allahabad district, brought to light
structural remains of residential houses, a line of shops and a ring well,
belonging to the 1 st
century A.D. and late Kushana phase.
The large scale
excavations conducted at Kausambi by
Allahabad University under G.R. Sharma, exposed the remains of a well-planned
fortified city with voluminous evidence suggesting Kausambi's inclusion in the Kushana empire.
The excavations brought to light four Kushana
inscriptions (three of Kanishka and one
of Vasishka), several seals and sealings including a seal of Kanishka with the
legend "in the service of Maharaja Rajatiraja Devaputra Kanishka",
numerous Kushana coins of Kanishka, Huvishka and
Vasudeva,
typical red pottery with spouted vessels, beads etc. from subperiods V (c. A.D.
25-100) and VI (c. A.D. 100-175).
The city had a wellbuilt stone fortification
(320 150 metre) and a palace in which two circular
towers were added, during the Kushana period. The excavations exposed six brick-built
residences, with provisions for roads, lanes, bye-lanes and several devices for
draining out refuse water. Three septic tanks which could be periodically
cleaned, were also discovered. The other antiquities discovered from Kausambi
such as objects of iron, copper, ivory, shell, stone, glass, terracotta figurines and a large number of
crucibles, all tend to suggest that it was
a flourishing town under the Kushana rule. Majority of the Kushana coins from this site were obtained from three
hoards which had a mixture of Kushana-Magha coins. The first hoard consisted of
54 coins with five Kushana coins (1 of Kanishka, 3 of Huvishka and 1 of
Vasudeva). The second hoard of 136 coins had only one thin copper coin of
Kushana period and in the third hoard of 171 coins all, except four, belong to
Magha rulers.
The
Buddhist religious centre of Sarnath, in
the vicinity of Varanasi has brought to light an inscription of Kanishka's
reign, monastic remains of the Kushana period and a copper coin of Huvishka. The
inscription, dated in the year 3 of Kanishka, records the dedication of an
inscribed Bodhisattva statue and an umbrella with a post, by Friar Bala along
with Mahakshatrapa Kharapallana and Kshatrapa Vanaspara of
Varanasi. This inscriptional evidence sufficiently proves that Sarnath was
included in Kanishka's empire and flourished as a religious town during the
Kushana period
Another
supporting settlement of ancient Varanasi was discovered at Ramnagar, situated
on the right bank of Ganga. Ancient habitational deposit at Ramnagar is spread
on a stretch of about 3 kilometre, that yielded a fivefold cultural sequence
beginning with pre NBPW (Period I) period till the Gupta times (Period V).
Excavation
at Kasia in Gorakhpur
district revealed some religious structures, a fragment of an inscribed stone
datable to the reign of Kanishka and about 12 copper coins of Wema Kadphises
(4) and Kanishka (8). The site has been identified with Kushinagara, where Buddha got his Mahaparinirvana
and must have developed into a religious centre attracting pilgrims.
The
excavations at Kheradih (710
510 11 metre) in Ballia district have revealed the
remains of a well-planned Kushana township with residential complexes along roads running in
the cardinal direction, joined by lanes at right angles.
Agiabir in Mirzapur district grew from a small
hamlet of chalcolithic settlers (Period I) into a well-developed township by
the Sunga-Kushana period (Period IV). It is located on the left bank of Ganga Excavations
at Bhagwas and
Nai Dih in
Sonbhadra district also yielded antiquities related to Kushana age. A floor
made of rammed brick jellyand brick nodules mixed with ash was discovered at
Bhagwas along with red ware and grey ware from Period III (Sunga-Kushana).
Red ware ceramic
industry
datable to Sunga-Kushana period and a wall of seven courses of a
brick
structure was encountered in Period III of Nai Dih.
Malhar
5
4
in
Chandauli district yielded red ware with typical Kushana
shapes
such as inkpot-type lids, bowls with in-turned rim, water vessel, etc.,
along
with terracotta figurines, two copper coins including one Kushana coin,
bone
objects, iron objects and iron slag from Period IV (early historical phase
–
200 B.C. to 300 A.D.). Not a single brick was found at Malhar suggesting that
the site continued to have remained a rural settlement although evidence of
iron-smelting is found from about 1800 B.C.
Excavation at Erich in
Jhansi district revealed evidence of structural activities in the habitational deposit of
Period III belonging to the Kushana period.
Typical Kushana pottery and a terracotta seal suggesting the existence of a
monastic establishment was also found.
Many
other sites in Uttar Pradesh have revealed Kushana red ware and other
antiquities during excavations including Bateshwar (Agra
district), Fatehpur Sikri (Agra),
Darau(Bulandshahar
district), Durvasa (Allahabad Sarai
Mohana,Drupad Kila(Kampilya, Bareilly district), Narhan
(Gorakhpur
district), Dhuriapar (Gorakhpur
district) and Pakkakot (Ballia
district).
Even
by the most conservative calculation atleast 9445 coins (173 gold and 9272 copper) have been retrieved as coin
hoards from different parts of Uttar Pradesh and this number does not include
unspecified or stray finds.
The
coin holdings of four select meseum of Uttar Pradesh, viz. State Museum, Lucknow;
Government Museum, Mathura; Allahabad Museum and Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi
consist of atleast 399 gold
and 5739 copper
coins of different Kushana rulers. This
numismatic evidence is indicative of a high level of monetization and
entrenched Kushana rule in Uttar Pradesh. In the
light of the evidence of 70 excavated
Kushana sites and 711 explored
sites from Uttar Pradesh, we can convincingly argue that the Kushana influence
was pervasive in the entire Ganga-Yamuna doab. Almost all the excavated sites
in the state have revealed flourishing Kushana layers and numerous sites
attained their peak of prosperity during the SungaKushana phase. Apart from a
few pockets like the south-western districts of Lalitpur, Jhansi, Hamipur, etc.
and the western hilly tracts, Kushana currency and related antiquities are
profusely found all over the state of Uttar Pradesh.
Both
the numismatic and inscriptional data furnish enough evidence of the well-entrenched
Kushana power in the Ganga-Yamuna doab with a large number of urban
centres.
Nepal: In
the neighbouring Kingdom of Nepal, material
related to Kushanas has been discovered at a few sites. During the excavation
of Tilaurakot in
the Taulihawa district of Nepal, a large number of Kushana coins were found
along with Ayodhya coins. Tilaurakot, about 90 kilometre east of Sravasti, yielded
NBPW from Period I and Kushana terracottas, iron pans and sockets, carnelian beads, Kushana coins, etc.
from Period II. Kushana copper coins, Red
ware and terracottas were discovered from Pipri and Kadzahawa in Bhairwa district and Sisania in
Taulihawa district of Nepal. A large number of copper coins of Wema Kadphises
and Kanishka were also discovered from
Bua
Dih (Kapilavastu). Moreover the
recknoning used by the Early Licchavis of Nepal is now supposed to be identical
with the Kanishka era of A.D. 78, suggesting Kushana influence in the region
Bihar: In
the Rabtak inscription of year 1, Kanishka claims to have ruled over India as far as Shri Champa (Bhagalpur) and
Pataliputra. The eastern conquest of Kanishka is recorded in the Chinese
chronicle, Fu fa-tsang yin yuan chuan, which states that Kanishka
attacked the king of Pataliputra and obtained the three most valuable gifts,
i.e. Buddha's alm-bowl, a miraculous cock and Ashvaghosha.
The Ma-ming p'u-sa-chuan also narrates
a similar story about the invasion of Magadha by the little Yueh-chih (should be the great Yueh-chih). On the
strength of these literary and epigraphic records we can safely conclude that
at least for some time some parts of Bihar were indeed a part of the vast Kushana
empire. The archaeological and numismatic data also lends sup ort to the above,
as a number of sites in Bihar and present day Jharkhand have yielded Kushana
coins and rich Kushana
antiquities. The ruins of ancient Pataliputra have been
located at Kumrahar near
Patna.
Excavation
at Champa in
Bhagalpur district yielded structures, red ware, copper rods, bangles, stone
and terracotta beads, a few terracotta stamps and female figurines of the
typical Kushana type Excavation at Rajgir,
the ancient capital of Magadha, by A.
Ghosh , revealed evidence of habitation in the pre NBPW phase (Period I), NBPW phase
(Period II) and 1 st
century B.C. (Period III) and early centuries of the Excavation at Buxar in Shahabad district brought to light
ceramics of
the
early centuries of the Christian era from Period III, that included typical Kushana
shapes like sprinklers, bowls and jars. Terracotta human figurines characterized by
Kushana type head-dress, blades, sealings and iron objects were also discovered
from this period.
A large hoard consisting of 354 Kushana copper
coins, comprising of 23 coins of Wema Kadphises, 159 of Kanishka and 172 coins
of Huvishka was also discovered at Buxar. During the excavation of Sonpur in Gaya district structures of baked bricks
(43 30 6 centimetres) were encountered in Period III
(200 B.C. – A.D. 200)
which determine the time frame of urban
existence at the site. Iron objects,
including nails, knife-blade, axes, daggers, lances, crucibles, ivory objects,
beads of terracotta and semi precious stones, bangles, antimony rods of copper,
terracotta toycarts and figurines, cast coins, votive tanks, etc have been
found all of which show that the site was a flourishing urban centre in the
Kushana period. The main ceramic industry of Period III was red ware characterized
by sprinklers, spouted basins, inkpot type lids, etc., of which some were
incised and stamped. Remains of the post-Kushana period have so far not been
reported from the site.
At Raja-Vishal-ka-Garh or the fortress having a circumference of about 5000
feet, three successive walls of fortification were encountered of which first
two belong to the Sunga period while the third has been assigned to the Kushana
period (2 -3 nd
cen. A.D. or later).
Chechar Kutubpur in Vaishali district is
strategically located near the confluence of the Ganges, Gandak and Punpur
rivers.Excavation at Hella Bazpur in
Vaishali district revealed a 3.60 metre
thick
habitational deposit, divisble in five layers, of which layers 3 to 5 belong to
the Kushana period. Pottery recovered from these layers (3-5) mainly include
plain red ware, slipped red ware and some fragments of polished red ware. 4
The other antiquities include iron pieces,
copper bangles and pendent, terracotta human and animal figurines, head of a
nagi figure, skin-rubber, wheels,
whistle, bead, bone-dice and a circular stone-weight. The animal No habitational
remains were found in the lowermost deposits (6-7) while mixed material of
early medieval period was found in layer (2), suggesting that the site was
first inhabited in the Kushana period and was deserted thereafter. figurines found commonly show horse with
saddle, dog, wolf, etc Manjhi in
Saran district has a huge mound of about 526 metre in circuit and 14 metre in
height, that yielded a three-fold cultural sequence of Black and red ware
(Period I), NBPW (Period II) and the Sunga-Kushana red ware (Period III).
4
Excavation
at Lauriya-Nandangarh in
Champaran district brought to light evidence of urban development during the
period 200 B.C. – A.D. 200. A huge brick
stupa (80 inch high), a massive rampart wall and several brick structures were exposed apart from terracotta
figurines and iron objects including dagger and arrowheads.
Three copper coins, (1 of Kanishka and 2of
Huvishka) and a hoard of 48 Kushana
coins (44 of Kanishka and 4 ofHuvishka) along with 14 Kushana imitations were
found during excavations.
Archaeologically
speaking the site seems to have declined after c. A.D. 200. The Sunga-Kushana
phase in the five terraces of the stupa of Kesariya in Champaran district was represented by
bricks of 36 21 6 centimetre.
This phase yielded exclusive red ware pottery including miniature pots,
pot-cum-lids, spouts, stamped pottery and sprinkler heads.
Excavation
at Viratpur in
Saharsa district brought to light four major stratas, of which layer 3 (80
metre thick) yielded a few potsherds showing Kushana influence. Red ware of the
Sunga-Kushana period along with grey ware and black slipped ware has been
encountered in Period III of Jhimjhimia-Kalisthan in Sahebganj
district.
Typical Kushana shapes like spouted vessels
and sprinklers in red ware were also noticed during the excavation of Antichak in Bhagalpur district. Saradkel in Ranchi district of present-day
Jharkhand has a huge mound spreading over 14-16 hectares with a height of about
9 metre. It seems to be a single-culture site in which two occupational periods
belonging to the early centuries of the Christian era were noticed.
Orrisa: A
few excavated sites in Orissa have brought to light Kushana coins, Puri-Kushana
coins and antiquities related to the Kushana period. Excavation at Sisupalgarh near Bhubaneshwar in Puri district
yielded a three-fold cultural sequence with evidence of occupation from the
beginning of the 3 century B.C. to the middle of the 4 th
century A.D.
Six copper Kushana coins, including one coin
each of Kanishka and Huvishka, a gold coin pendant and four Puri-Kushana coins
were unearthed from Period II B (c. A.D. 100-200) and Period III (c. 200-350
A.D.). During the excavation at Asurgarh in
Kalahandi district, a copper coin of Kanishka was found along with a mould for
the preparation of beads and ornaments and ground stone tools assignable to the
period between 1-4 Kushana and Puri-Kushana coins were found in excavations at
Viratgarh in Khiching of Mayurbhanj district.
Thirteen Kushana coins of Kanishka and Huvishka were found near the foot of
Kayema Hills in Cuttack district, a
hoard of Kushana and Puri-Kushana coins was found in the neighbourhood of
Purusottampur in Ganjam district and
another hoard of 135 Kushana and Puri-Kushana coins were found at Sitabhanji in
Keonjhar district.
Some other Kushana and Puri Kushana coins and 5
Puri-Kushana coins were also thereafter found at Sitabhanji. Three hoards of
Kushana and Puri-Kushana coins were found at Bhanjakia in Mayurbhanja district, Including 22
Puri-KushanA in one hoard and 1261 Puri-Kushana coins along
with
a coin of Kanishka in another. In
Mayurbhanj distrct, 105 Puri-Kushana coins were found at Nuagoan and a
hoard of 282 copper coins including 112 coins of Kushana and 170 of Puri
Kushana
was found at some place. J.D. Beglar had found
some 'Indo-Scythain' (Kushana) coins at Jaugada and Gulka near Purusottampur in
Ganjam district.
Eighty four Kushana and PuriKushana coins were found in a hoard at Gauribari Salt
factory, near ManikaPatana in Puri
district and 26 Puri-Kushana coins were found in Cuttack district. As many as 910 Puri-Kushana coins were
discovered in Balasore district and more
than 1000 coins belonging to Kushana dynasty were discovered in three hoards at
Banitia in Balasore district. Some more
PuriKushana coins were found in erstwhile Nayagarh state also. It must be pointed out that most Kushana
coins in Orissa have been found along with the Puri-Kushana coins, which have
been variously designated as Oriya-Kushana or Imitation Kushana also. A hoard
of such coins was at first found in the Puri district of Orissa, for which the
type was characterized as "Puri Kushana".
These
coins were most probably issued by some local rulers of Orissa, imitating
Kushana motifs, after the downfall of the Kushana empire. The tendency of the
local rulers to imitate the Kushana coinage speaks in volume about strength of
the Kushana monetary system.
West
Bengal:
In
the state of West Bengal also
few sites have yielded sculptures with distinct affinity with Kushana art
idioms, coins and pottery related to the Kushana age. Archaeological excavation
at Mangalkot in
Burdwan district revealed the existence of an urban centre in Period IV (c.
A.D. 100-300) datable to the Kushana period. Remains of large scale building activities in two
structural phases in well burnt bricks (38 28 5 centimetre and 36 24 6 centimetre), ring wells and drains were
exposed in Period IV. Other important finds of the Period are beads of
semi-precious stones like carnelian, jasper,
agate and glass, inscribed seals and sealings, copper bangles, terracotta
figurines, cast copper coins, iron nails, net sinkers, copper rings, etc. The dominant ceramic industry of the period
was sturdy red ware represented by shapes like bowls, sprinklers, vases, lids,
long-necked surahis, some with
stamped and incised designs. Sherds of rouletted ware were also found which signify connection with
Indo-Roman trade.
Chandraketugarh in 24 Pargana district yielded beads
of glass and stones, seals and inscriptions in Kharoshthi, Brahmi and mixed
Kharoshthi Brahmi characters. Typical Kushana terracotta human figurines were
found including one showing a headless warrior from Period IV, assignable to
the Sunga-Kushana period.
A head and bust of a Buddha-Bodhisattva in
mottled red standstone was also discovered which shows close affinity with the
early Kushana Buddha-Bodhisattva type of Mathura.
Excavation at ancient Tamralipti near Tamluk in Midnapur district brought
to light some copper Kushana coins including a coin of Kanishka and terracotta sculptures of the Sunga-Kushana
style along with rouletted ware from Period III. B.N. Mukherjee is of the opinion that
settlements of Yuezhi merchants existed in Tamralipti, Chandraketugarh and some
other places in south Bengal, who were principally horse dealers but seems to
have indulged in corn-trade also.
Decline
The
Great Kushan Empire started declining after the death of Vasudeva in 226 AD. After his death ,
the Kushan empire split into western and eastern halves. The Persian Sassanid
Empire soon
subjugated the Western Kushans (in Afghanistan), losing Bactria and other
territories. In 248 the Persians defeated them again, deposing the Western
dynasty and replacing them with Persian vassals known as the Kushanshas (or
Indo-Sassanids).
The
Eastern Kushan kingdom based in the Punjab. Around 270, their territories on
the Gangetic plain became independent under local dynasties such as the
Yaudheyas. At the beginning of the fourth century the Gupta’s powerful
empire in India appeared. With the development of their territory during the
periods of Chandragupta and Samudra Gupta, Sakai and Kushana government in
Punjab and Gujarat were abolished Then
in the mid fourth century the Gupta Empire under Samudragupta subjugated them.
In 360, a Kushan vassal named Kidara overthrew the old Kushan dynasty and established
the Kidarite Kingdom. The Kushan style of Kidarite coins indicates they
considered themselves Kushans. The Kidarite had been rather prosperous,
although on a smaller scale than their Kushan predecessors. The invasions of
the White Huns in the fifth century, and later the expansion of Islam, ultimately wiped out those remnants
of the Kushan empire
Sassaninan king Shapur II fought and made a treaty with
the Kushanas in 350 AD, but he was defeated by them twice in 367-368 AD.
Though, the last king , who had his capital in Balkh (350-375 AD) ruled up to
375 AD. We know the events form these wars from the work “History of Armenia”
by the Armenian historian Fawstos Buzand (end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th
century). The first war was begun by the “king of Kushans”. Shapur II
personally led the Sasanian army, but it did not help the Persians: “…the
K’ušan army defeated the Persian forces exceedingly. It killed many of them,
took many prisoners, and drove part of them into flight”.574 The war of Shapur
II in the east is dated by the last years life of the Armenian king
Arsak,captured by the Persian shahinshah in AD 367. The second war, in which
Shapur II intended to take revenge, ended just as sadly for the Persians, as
the first: “…the Persian army suffered defeat at the hands of the forces of the
K’ušan and turned to flight under frightful blows. [The K’ušan] caught up with
the Persian army and did not leave a single one from the Persian forces alive;
no one survived to bring news”. This second war in the east took place in AD
374/375. In the opinion of Trever, persisting Kushans in the 70’s of the 4th
century AD were not capable of inflicting so terrible defeats Shapur II, as the
“Kushans” had according to Fawstos Buzand. The Kushan kingdom at this time was
already divided into two parts, but power of Sasanians was at its height. In
the 70s of the 4th century AD only the Chionites could withstand Shapur II,
since their rise to power occurred exactly during this period. In the view of
Trever this part of Fawstos Buzand’s work may concern the Chionites, whom he
continued to name as Kushans, because contemporaries of Fawstos Buzand did not
much distinguished the Kushans and the Chionites. Gubaev considers that as a result of the
wars of Shapur II with the Chionites, the latter became masters of Dehistan
Shapur II fought war with the Kushans, beginng in the late 60s of the 4th century AD according to Lukonin, and
destroyed the Kushan kingdom, one of his
allies being the Chionites.578 E. Zeimal, with a certain degree of doubt,
accepts this version, considering that
“the Aršakuni king of the K’ušan, who resided in the city of Balχ” mentioned at Fawstos Buzand was perhaps one
of the last Kushan kings Vasudeva.
In the opinion of some scientists
Dyakonov, Mandelshtam and V. Masson Shapur II was at war with the Kidarites,
who as ally helped the Chionites. Although V. Masson notes that “since Armenian
historians used the term “Kushan” in very broad meaning, it is difficult with
confidence to confirm which enemy Shapur II had in the second half of the 4th century. The suggestion that it was Kidara
seems more probable”. Ter-Mkrtichyan sees only the Chionites as the enemy of
Shapur II, since they ruled Central Asia in that period.
Later the Kidarites claimed independence and captured Afghanistan and
nearby area. Their
king Kidara ignored the ruling power of Persian kings. He coined his total face
which was unique to the Persian kings. Shapur II became extremely angry and
attacked Punjab. Kidara was defeated and confessed to realize the power of
Persian kings. He accompanied Shapur in a war with Roman. However upon his
return to India he went under the protection of Samudra Gupta, the powerful
north Indian king.
Consequently,
Kushan had a very small land in Kabul valley and Balkh area The Yudheyas, bhattis and Nagars were also in continuous internal
conflicts. Finally, in 375 AD,
The Kushans Empire , which had been established by the great Kanishka
was collapsed and retired.
Some princes, who accepted the superiority of Persia, ruled over in a very
small region.
Following factors were responsible for their
fall
Most of the
feudatories claimed independence
Continuous fights
with Xionites or Red Huns.
Rise of Gupta
Dynasty in 320 AD
Conflicts with
Indo-Sassanians.
They were able to re-establish some authority after the Sassanids
destroyed the Hephthalites in 565 CE, but their rule collapsed under Arab attacks
in the mid 600s.
New settlements of Kushans
Some of them moved to Himalayas: This branch of Kushans kept
ruling a large part of Himachala. They were the forefathers of the
forthcoming Naga Dynasty
of Kashmir.
A branch of these Kushans went to Afghanistan
and Persia: These Kushans were found ruling Persia in 4th and 5th centuries.
They ruled as KushanShahs, The Famous
Shahi dynasty which ruled sind till early 8th century were also one of these
Kushan or kushanshah Rulers. They were also knows as Kidarites or Red Huns
(Though they were not pure Huns). Present day Shahs of Gujarat and Sind are the
progeny of those great warriors. According to Frye, the glory of the Kushans
was so high, that their legal successors, the Hephthalites and kings of Kabul
from the dynasty of the Shahis, even up to the Arabic conquest, raised their
own family as Kushans.
Some of them went downwards: and finally
settled in Gujarat and southern Rajsthan and occupied the territories
of Western Kshatrapas (Sakas). They started
ruling Southern Rajasthan and Gujarat under several branches as petty
rulers. These branches were namely Chapotkats,
Nagars, Yudheyas, Awanas etc. Perhaps Gurjars ruled as feudatories to Guptas till 455
AD. The Gupta Empire
collapsed due to the another Yuezhi group named Huna attack under Torman in 467 AD. While, At the beginning of the fifth century
some people of Yuezhi, who left in Oxus river area, united in a fighting group
and invaded the Gupta in India and Shaka in west and gained their kingdom from
Gupta and Shaka . Roman called them Hephtalites and Persian historians called
them Hayatelle. They are called white Hunas too. They were strong people. Their
emergence in this side of Oxus created a lot of panic in the east and west.They
divided in two groups eastern groups and western group. Eastern group
stabilized his kingdom in North India while western group established his
kingdom in whole central Asia to west.
The Impact of
Kushan Extinction
As it is understood from discovered
coins of Kushan, the economic development and country’s improvement were based
on commerce between east and west. This business was performed by the sea and
land. There were two main ways, one from the path near Caspian Sea and the
other by Oman Sea. In this situation the development of Sassanian was a threat
to them because they endangered their commerce, and transformation of goods.
They tried not to lose the floor and it was natural to strive for international
business. However what they intended did not meet the reality. The great
evolution by Sassanian changed the history of central Asia. Therefore their
rate and proportion in international commerce was changed. Professor Ahmad
Hassan Dany believes that the results of abolishing Kushan by Sassanian were
first of all, destroying commercial benefits and second, the attacks of
northern Hunas. Sassanian had a lot of wars in the west with Romans and in the
east with Kushan and Sakas. The weakness of Kushan in the east paved the way for northern
attacks. In this way the power of Sassanian suffered a lot and the Gupta
government vanished completely. As the result, there were no powerful
governments to stop the attacks of northern plunderers.
Professor Ahmad Hasan Dany adds that because
of the victory of Sassanian, the commercial affairs which were under the
control of Kushan were destroyed completely. The main roads were ruined. The
attacks of tribes put into danger the transportation of goods in Silk Road. The
development of Sassanian in Indus and Gujarat led to the disappearing of
domestic governors. In this way Gupta penetrated to the area and finally they
seized the west part of Indus River.
Sea commerce was severely damaged
too. And after nearly two centuries it decreased a lot. However it was revived
by Arabs in the seventh century.
It
seems that the above mentioned opinions of Professor Ahmad Hassan Dany are
true. However his ideas regarding commercial navigation and land transportation
are not completely true because the position of Sassanian in Kushan was
reinforced. Moreover, Sassanian princes got the title of Kushanshah and those
regions were under the direct control of Sassanian. An English proverb asserts
that trade follows the flag. Therefore when political influence is apparently
found in one region cultural and economic influences follow. According to
historians’ and researches’ ideas about Sassanian political and commercial
power in east of Persian Gulf, it can be safely claimed that the abolishing of
Kushan did not endanger land or sea commerce rather with omitting Kushan as
intermediator the benefits of Sassanian increased. Sassanian directly
controlled the business of that area and the benefits were divided between
Sassanian and Guptas.
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